Phytolacca sp. / Karmozijnbes
Naamgeving Phytolacca:
De naam is afgeleid van het Griekse 'phyto', of plant en anderzijds het Latijnse 'lacca' wat je kan vertalen naar lak of verf. Dat verwijst naar het een donkerrood pigment dat de Indianen vroeger uit het sap van de rijpe bessen haalden om er hun wol (kledij), sieraden en gebruiksvoorwerpen mee te kleuren. De kleurstof werd later ook gebruikt als rode inkt en zelfs om er rode wijn en port mee bij te kleuren. Dit heeft echter negatieve neveneffecten op de spijsvertering van de wijndrinkers. In Frankrijk werd het gebruik ervan dan ook verboden en wie toch betrapt werd kreeg toendertijd de doodstraf.
De benaming van 'karmozijnbes' verwijst trouwens eveneens naar de kleurstof die men uit het bessensap kon winnen.
De Phytolacca americana komt uit Amerika en werd door ontdekkingsreizigers meegebracht naar Europa waar de plant nu aan het verwilderen is.
The leaves are poisonous. They are said to be safe to eat when young, the toxins developing as the plants grow older. Another report says that the seeds and root are poisonous. The plant sap can cause dermatitis in sensitive people. The plant contains substances that cause cell division and can damage chromosomes. These substances can be absorbed through any abrasions in the skin, potentially causing serious blood aberratins, and so it is strongly recommended that the people wear gloves when handling the plant. Avoid during pregnancy. Even children consume even 1 berry emergency poison treatment should be instituted. Up to 10 berries are considered harmless for adults.
Artikel over karmozijnbes
De Amerikaanse indianen die leefden in de oostelijke streken van de Verenigde Staten, aten de zeer jonge scheuten in de lente, en groeven de wortels op om als medicijn te gebruiken. Met het purper-rode sap van de bessen versierden ze hun kleding en kleurden er gebruiksvoorwerpen en sieraden mee, gemaakt van hout, schors, dierenhuiden en zaden.
De stammen die leefden in de buurt van de rivier Connecticut gaven hun spaanderhouten manden een diepblauwe kleur met het sap. De Delaware gingen er van uit dat het inwendig gebruik van kleine doses karmozijnbes-wortel reuma kon genezen, terwijl de Irokezen de wortel uitwendig gebruikten om huidziekten te behandelen.
Het is dan ook niet verwonderlijk dat de eerste Europese immigranten in die streken al vlug een aantal van die gebruiken overnamen, en vervolgens snel in de gaten kregen dat karmozijnbes een kwalitatief zeer goede natuurlijke inkt gaf, die heel duurzaam bleek: Een bewijs daarvan is zeker dat die inkt nog kan gelezen worden op heel wat documenten uit die tijd, die nu in musea bewaard worden.
Maar naast de vele gebruiksmogelijkheden die de plant heeft, ging men al snel rekening houden met de mogelijke nadelen van de plant: Hoewel de plant medicinaal weliswaar een aantal beloften inhoudt, kan ze ook gevaarlijk giftig zijn. Een overdosis van de bessen of van de wortel kan niet alleen leiden tot hevig braken en convulsies (stuipen), maar eventueel zelfs dodelijk zijn. Amerikaanse bronnen gaan er zelfs van uit, dat het verzamelen van een grote dosis van de wortels zonder dat handschoenen worden gedragen, er al toe kan leiden dat de giftige bestanddelen doorheen de huid worden geabsorbeerd.
De zaden worden als extreem giftig beschouwd, maar eigenlijk zou hetzelfde gelden voor de gehele volgroeide plant. Hoewel men soms de zeer jonge scheuten als een soort ‘asperge’ klaarmaakt, moet men er rekening mee houden dat, zo gauw er ook maar een spoortje rood te zien is in stengel of bladeren, men de plant beter niet gebruikt, en dat men nooit ook maar een deel van de wortel mee mag plukken.
Ondanks deze nadelen heeft de Karmozijnbes toch heel wat medische indicaties gehad, die ik hier kort aanhaal, maar waarvoor ik het kruid dus zelf zeer duidelijk niet aanbeveel:
Boeren gebruikten een tinctuur van Karmozijnbes-wortel om de gestuwde uiers van hun koeien te behandelen. Kippenkwekers deden een stukje van de wortel in het drinkwater van hun kippen, in de overtuiging dat het hun dieren tegen ziekte beschermde. (Overigens is de plant niet giftig voor vogels, maar een te grote hoeveelheid van de bessen geeft het kippenvlees niet alleen een onaangename geur, maar bovendien krijgt het vlees laxerende eigenschappen voor de mens!)
De eerste Amerikaanse blanken leerden van de indianen een recept voor een zalf met karmozijnbes, die ze gebruikten voor de uitwendige behandeling van arthritis en chronisch reuma en zweren.
De volgroeide bladeren van de plant werden, gekneusd, bij oogklachten toegepast, en ze zouden ook helpen bij insectenbeten.
De karmozijnbes is in Amerika nooit in cultuur gebracht, maar werd wel in Europa ingevoerd in de late 18de Eeuw. In Frankrijk en Noord-Italië werd de plant gekweekt en de jonge scheuten, zoals eerder vermeld, als asperge klaargemaakt. De planten mogen dan nog niet hoger zijn dan 10 cm, en het kookwater moet twee maal ververst worden.
In Europa ging men de plant echter nog voor andere doeleinden gebruiken: malafide wijnverkopers, vooral in Portugal in Frankrijk, gingen de kleur van weinig aantrekkelijke wijnen ‘opwaarderen’ met het sap van de karmozijnbes. En behalve het feit dat de smaak van de wijn door deze toevoeging verre van opgewaardeerd werd, leidde deze handelwijze vanzelfsprekend ook tot een aantal vergiftigingen. Om die reden zou er dan (in Frankrijk en/of Portugal? mijn bron is hieromtrent niet duidelijk) een wet gekomen zijn die voorschreef dat de Karmozijnbes jaarlijks moesten worden terug gesneden vooraleer ze bessen konden vormen.
http://annetanne.be/kruidenklets/uit-de-kruidenmand/kruiden-k-z/phytolacca-karmozijnbes/
Wetenschappelijk onderzoek
Antibacterial effect of crude extract and metabolites of Phytolacca americana on pathogens responsible for periodontal inflammatory diseases and dental caries.
BMC Complement Altern Med. 2014 Sep 20;14:343. doi: 10.1186/1472-6882-14-343.
Patra JK, Kim ES, Oh K, Kim HJ, Kim Y1, Baek KH.
The oral cavity is the store house of different species of microorganisms that are continuously engaged in causing diseases in the mouth. The present study was conducted to evaluate the antibacterial potential of crude extracts of the aerial parts of Phytolacca americana and its natural compounds against two oral pathogens, Porphyromonas gingivalis and Streptococcus mutans, which are primarily responsible for periodontal inflammatory diseases and dental caries, as well as a nonpathogenic Escherichia coli.
METHODS:
Crude extract and fractions from the aerial parts of P. americana (0.008-1.8 mg/mL) were evaluated for their potential antibacterial activity against two oral disease causing microorganisms by micro-assays. The standard natural compounds present in P. americana, kaempferol, quercetin, quercetin 3-glucoside, isoqueritrin and ferulic acid, were also tested for their antibacterial activity against the pathogens at 1-8 μg/mL.
RESULTS:
The crude extract was highly active against P. gingivalis (100% growth inhibition) and moderately active against S. mutans (44% growth inhibition) at 1.8 mg/mL. The chloroform and hexane fraction controlled the growth of P. gingivalis with 91% and 92% growth inhibition at a concentration of 0.2 mg/mL, respectively. Kaempferol exerted antibacterial activity against both the pathogens, whereas quercetin showed potent growth inhibition activity against only S. mutans in a concentration dependent manner.
CONCLUSION:
The crude extract, chloroform fraction, and hexane fraction of P. americana possesses active natural compounds that can inhibit the growth of oral disease causing bacteria. Thus, these extracts have the potential for use in the preparation of toothpaste and other drugs related to various oral diseases.
Phytolacca americana (pokeweed) is an herbaceous plant that has been used by Native Americans as a laxative, to treat inflammation and rashes, to induce vomiting and to treat breast problems, especially in breast-feeding mothers (Jones, 2001). More recently, anti-viral and anti-carcinogenic properties have been investigated by Schlick et al. (2000) and Rajamohan et al. (1999).
Through studying the anti-viral properties of various parts of P. americana, several inhibitors of protein translation have been isolated. Pokeweed antiviral proteins PAPI, PAPII, PAPIII and PAP-S can be extracted from spring, early summer, late summer leaves and seeds, respectively and each has individually been shown to inhibit replication in plant and animal viruses, such as brome mosaic and hepatitis B (Misawa et al., 1975; He et al., 2008; Picard et al., 2005; Barbieri et al., 1982). PAP has also been conjugated with various antibodies and this has been demonstrated to be effective against the proliferation of osteosarcoma cells in hamsters (Ek et al., 1998) and against HIV replication (Zarling et al., 1990).
In addition to PAP, there are other compounds that have been isolated from the various parts of P. americana. For example, the seeds are known to contain triterpenes, glycosides and neolignans. Furthermore, several 1, 4-benzo-dioxane-type compounds have been isolated from the stems, such as americanoic acid methyl ester, isoamericanoic acid A methyl ester and 9’-O-methylamericanol A (Takahashi et al., 2001). Extracts of P. americana that contain these compounds have not been previously tested on cancer cells.
Monograph Phytolacca dodecandra (L’Herit)
is native to sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar.2 It is a member of the Phytolaccaceae family, and commonly known in Ethiopia as “endod.” Other local names include soapberry, African soapberry (English), Phytolaque (French), and Fitolaca (Spanish), and in Tanzania it is called chihakahaka.3 The plant is a sprawling woody climber with an average length of stems reaches 5 to 8 m. It grows very rapidly especially during the rainy season with erect, racemic, dioecious flowering stalks, and red berries.4,5
Phytolacca dodecandra have different medicinal and nonmedicinal uses. The dried powdered berries of P dodecandra, when placed in water, forms a foaming detergent solution.2 For this reason, Ethiopia, Somali, and Uganda have traditionally been using the detergent solution for cleaning clothes for a century.6 In East, central Africa, and Madagascar, extracts of berries, seeds, leaves, and roots have also been used traditionally as a purgative, anthelmintic, laxative, emetic, diuretic, and antidiarrheal for humans and purgative for animals.2 The leaves sap and crushed roots and berries were applied to wounds for skin diseases such as ringworms, scabies, leprosy, boils, and vitiligo.2,7 In DR Congo, an infusion of berries or roots is taken orally to treat rabies, malaria, sore throat, and respiratory problems. Boiled leaves are also used to treat asthma and tuberculosis. In Tanzania, macerated root bark or leaves are used for the treatment of epilepsy. In southern Nigeria, the leaf decoction is used as a laxative in a newborn baby. In Rwanda, leaf sap is used to treat otitis media,2 and the young leaves and shoot chewed to induce abortion.8,9
Since the first report of molluscicidal activity by Lemma,6 the plant has received tremendous attention from researchers from various parts of the world for the control of helminthiasis and other ailments. This resulted in increased scientific evidence to confirm the various traditional claims of the plant. The voluminous amount of scientific studies calls for a structured summary of studies conducted on P dodecandra to inform the scientific community on the extent of the available evidence and identify research gaps for further studies. This could speed up rational utilization of the P dodecandra among the community. Therefore, we designed a scoping review to systematically summarize the available studies on pharmacological activity, toxicity, and phytochemical constituents of P dodecandra.
Pharmacological Activities
Molluscicidal activity
Phytolacca dodecandra is the most extensively studied plant molluscicide.11,12 The molluscicidal effect of the plant was first discovered by Lemma in 1964.6 In Ethiopia, at that time P dodecandra was widely used as a soap to clean clothes. The small berries were dried, powdered, and placed in water to form foaming detergents. It was noticed that in places along rivers where people washed clothes, there were more dead snails than adjacent areas.5,13 Following this discovery, subsequent studies in Ethiopia and elsewhere have established that the plant is a potent molluscicide.11,14-30
The first laboratory aided test for its molluscicidal effect was conducted by Lemma in 1970.5 Powdered ripe berries were added to different amounts of standard water to make the desired weight by volume expressed by parts per million. Ripe berries showed 100% mortality from 100 to 25 ppm and 25% mortality at 15 ppm after 24 hours.5 Later the butanol extracts were tested against Biomphalaria choanomphala, B pfeifferi, and Bulinus (Physopsis) nasutus snails which revealed that exposure to 19 to 25 ppm for 6 hours or to 6 to 7 ppm for 24 hours resulted in 100% mortality.16,24 Lemma31 also reported 7- to 10-fold potency of butanol extract over aqueous extract. Similarly, a field study conducted in 2 streams of Chiweshe, Zimbabwe, showed a 100% molluscicidal effect at 0.02 mg/mL preparation of powdered berries after 24 hours of exposure.29 Another comparative study32 was conducted in Ethiopia which was aimed at developing an effective, cheap, and sustainable method of controlling schistosomiasis. Different formulations of P dodecandra were compared for potency, and then spray and drip-feeding methods were compared for simplicity and effectiveness in the field. Finally, the efficacy of P dodecandra powder soap was compared with P dodecandra spray method. The immediate and long-term effects of P dodecandra application on the snail population and schistosomal infection were determined. It was found that the spray method was more effective against Biomphalaria pfeifferi (100% mortality) than drip feeding method. Snail mortality ranged from 20% to 100% using P dodecandra soap.32,33
Madhina and Shiff34 studied the miracidial effect of P dodecandra berries. The experiment compared infections resulting among Bulinus globosus exposed to Schistosoma haematobium miracidia in outdoor pond conditions with pond treated with P dodecandra and control. The study showed that there was a significant difference between P dodecandra and control (relative risk [RR] = 5.68 [2.04-15.9]).34 Birrie et al35 also found that aqueous extract of ground berries prevented snails from being infected by miracidia at a concentration of 4 ppm. The idea was proposed by Lemma5 where 1000, 100, and 50 ppm were sufficient to kill both snail and all miracidia and cercariae within 10 minutes, 1 hour, and 2 hours, respectively.
Saponins from P dodecandra revealed hemolytic activity. Lemmatoxin and 3-O-(O-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-[l, 2]-O-[β-d-galactopyranosyl-(1,3)]-β-d-glucopyranosyl) oleanolic acid saponins which showed a concentration causing 50% hemolysis (HC50) of 5 and ppm, respectively.36 The molluscicidal activity could be due to these potent hemolytic activities of saponins.
Anthelminthic effect
In Uganda, P dodecandra is being used for control of the helminthic disease.8 The extract is prepared by taking 0.5 kg of mature leaves, boiled in 3 L of water to remain with 1.5 L and cooled. The extract of 1.5 L was given to adult cattle, 1 L to calves, and 100 mL to adult humans.8,9 Nalule et al9 conducted an in vivo experiment and found that P dodecandra was 57% effective as compared with a commercial anthelmintic drug(Albendazole). Another study was conducted on calves, using 3 types of worms: Fasciola, Strongyles, and Moniezia. It was found that there was no significant difference in eggs per grams of Moniezia parasite with Albendazole (7.5 mg/kg) and P dodecandra (14.24 mg/kg) but there was a significant difference with Fasciola and Strongyles. This suggests that Albendazole 10% is more effective than P dodecandra on Fasciola, Strongyles, and Moniezia species, whereas P dodecandra extracts have almost the same effect on all the 3 species of parasites studied.37 In another study performed to evaluate the egg hatching inhibition effect of P dodecandra leaves of the hydro-alcoholic extract on Haemonchus contortus, the crude extracts of P dodecandra showed concentration-dependent inhibition activity and achieved 100% egg hatch inhibition at concentrations of 5 mg/mL after 48 hours of exposure.38 A similar effect was reported in another in vitro study by Mohammed et al39 which resulted in 99.4% inhibition of egg hatchability at a concentration of 2 mg/mL. The slight difference in potency was seen which could be attributed to extraction solvent and dose used. The mechanism and active compound from the plant have not been yet studied.
Antimicrobial effect
Phytolacca dodecandra has been traditionally used to treat infectious diseases.40 The evaluation of the antibacterial effect of P dodecandra berries revealed an antibacterial effect against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella spp. and highly susceptible to reference strain than isolate. This could be due to exposure of an isolate to different drugs and could increase the chances of resistance.41 Besides, 80% methanol extract of P dodecandra berries showed antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa standard strain of human pathogen but there was no activity against S aureus and E coli.40,42 A polar solvent like 80% methanol extracts polar constituents like saponins which were less active against S aureus compared with Gram-negative bacteria like P aeruginosa. This could be due to the presence of pores in P aeruginosa which permits the entering of polar compounds.43 Another study showed that leaf extract of dichloromethane had activity against P aeruginosa ATCC 27853 (MIC 12 mg/mL). Methanol and water extracts had also activity against P aeruginosa (MIC 1.4 mg/mL). Dichloromethane and ethyl acetate extracts of the roots of P dodecandra were also active against P aeruginosa ATCC 27853 with MIC of 2.5 and 3.5 mg/mL, respectively.7 This consistent antibacterial effect is indicative of its antimicrobial effect especially if the compound could be isolated and screened.
Studies have established the antifungal activity of P dodecandra. The methanol extracts of the roots revealed antifungal activity against Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, and had higher activity against Microsporum gypseum clinical isolate and Trichophyton mentagrophytes clinical isolate (MIC of 3.4 mg/mL). The ethyl acetate extract of the roots also had mild antifungal activity. Besides, the aqueous extract of the leaves had moderate activity against M gypseum clinical isolate (MIC 110 mg/mL) and T mentagrophytes clinical isolate(3.4 mg/mL) and mild activity against C albicans. However, dichloromethane, hexane, methanol, and ethyl acetate leaves had no activity against fungal isolate tested.7 The n-butanol and aqueous extract of berries also showed antifungal effect against Histoplasma capsulatum var. farciminosum with MIC of 0.39 to 0.78 mg/mL and 6.25 to 12.5 mg/mL, respectively.44 The aqueous extract was tested against 23 strains of dermatophytes and yeasts. The MIC against the dermatophytes tested ranged from 0.0195 to 0.156 mg/mL, whereas for all the yeasts the MIC was >0.5 mg/mL.45 This conforms to the traditional use of the plants to treat skin disease. Further research is needed to isolate and test active compounds. Further study also needed to evaluate the mechanism on how the extract works so that the highly active product could be developed.
Antimalarial and antilarval effect of P dodecandra
The root and leaves of P dodecandra traditionally are used for the treatment of malaria in North-Western Ethiopia.46,47 A study conducted on the leaf extract of P dodecandra against Plasmodium berghei demonstrated antimalarial activity in mice. The doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg of the methanol extract of leaf demonstrated 18.67%, 50.93%, and 55.24% chemo suppression, respectively.48
Zeleke et al49 reported 100% mortality of larvae of Acropora arabensis at a dose of 50 mg/L of the powder of P dodecandra in a laboratory and 96% mortality to the field population of A arabensis. The study was also conducted on the aqueous seed extract of P dodecandra from 5 to 50 mg/L. The 50 mg/L demonstrated 80% larvae mortality, unlike the powder which caused 100% death. This difference could be due to low extractive power of water and active substance could be left in the residue during extraction.49,50 Studies have shown that potency can further be increased by aging berry powder in water. Getachew et al50 evaluated the killing effect of the fresh and aged solutions against the fourth stage larvae of A arabensis. It was found that there was a slight improvement in the potency of aged over fresh preparations. Besides, the 80% ethanol and water extract was also tested against pupae Anopheles gambiae and showed a dose-dependent effect. The extracts of P dodecandra were potent for killing pubic lice and likely an alternative to synthetic insecticide. However, the active principle is not yet isolated and tested, and further research is needed to know the target and active substance responsible for its activity.
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