En 1995, EEUU aprueba una ley para trasladar su embajada a Jerusalén, la Jerusalem Embassy Act of 1995, que se convertiría en la Ley Pública 104-45, aunque se manda al Archivo Nacional sin haber sido firmada por el Presidente (aquí su texto final y su tramitación y aquí normativa relacionada con o derivada de ella); vinculada a la misma, las siguientes, todas de 1995:
S.770: Jerusalem Embassy Relocation Implementation Act of 1995;
S.1323: Jerusalem Embassy Relocation Implementation Act of 1995;
H.R.1595: Jerusalem Embassy Relocation Implementation Act of 1995 (la Jerusalem Embassy Relocation Implementation Act of 1995 nunca llegó a aprobarse, aquí su texto y aquí asuntos relacionados con ella)
Como antecedentes de iniciativas legislativas en el Congreso de EEUU sobre el mismo asunto, entre otras, las siguientes:
En 1992, S.CON.RES.113 (June 18, 1992): "Whereas in 1990, the US Senate and House of Representatives overwhelmingly declared that Jerusalem, the capital of Israel, “must remain an undivided city”... therefore, be it – Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring) That the Congress... strongly believes that Jerusalem must remain an undivided city in which the religious rights of every ethnic and religious group are protected as they have been by Israel during the past twenty-five years; and calls upon the President and the Secretary of State to issue an unequivocal statement in support of these principles."
En 1984, la H.R.4877: A bill to require that the United States Embassy in Israel be located in the city of Jerusalem;
En 1983, la S.2031: A bill relating to the residence of the American Ambassador to Israel;
En 1983, la H.R.4376: A bill to require that the United States Embassy in Israel be located in the city of Jerusalem;
En 1983, la H.R.4365: A bill to require that the United States Embassy in Israel be located in the city of Jerusalem;
En 1981, la H.RES.199: A resolution relating to the capital of Israel;
Desde la Ley de 1995, se han presentado en el Congreso de EEUU diversas iniciativas legislativas para ejecutar dicho traslado, así como para celebrar la reunificación de Jerusalén, la mayoría fallidas; algunas de ellas:
El 10 de marzo de 2011 se empieza a tramitar la proposición de ley Jerusalem Embassy and Recognition Act of 2011 [su texto y tramitación];
En 2011, la H.CON.RES.5: Supporting the reunification of Jerusalem;
En 2010, H.RES.1191: Urging the expedient relocation of the United States Embassy in Israel to Jerusalem;
En 2010, la H.CON.RES.271: Commemorating the 43rd anniversary of the reunification of Jerusalem;
En 2009, la H.R. 3412: Jerusalem Embassy and Recognition Act of 2009 (no aprobada) y la S. 2737:Jerusalem Embassy Relocation Act of 2009 (no aprobada);
En 2008, H.CON.RES.432: Urging the expedient relocation of the United States Embassy in Israel to Jerusalem;
En 2007, la H.CON.RES.152: Relating to the 40th anniversary of the reunification of the City of Jerusalem;
En 2007, la H.CON.RES.131: Commemorating the 40th anniversary of the reunification of Jerusalem;
En 2007, la S.J.RES.12: Jerusalem Resolution, cuyo resumen dice: Jerusalem Resolution - Requires the United States, not later than 180 days before recognizing a Palestinian state, to move the U.S. Embassy in Israel from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.Prohibits U.S. recognition of a Palestinian state until the international community resolves the status of Jerusalem by recognizing the city as Israel's undivided capital.Expresses the sense of Congress that the citizens of Israel should be allowed, as a fundamental human right recognized by the United States and U.N. General Assembly Resolution 181 of November 29, 1947, to worship freely and according to their traditions.;
En 2006, la H.R.5522: Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 2007, con varias secciones relacionadas:
(Sec. 111) Provides that for purposes of birth registration, certification of nationality, or passport issuance of a U.S. citizen born in Jerusalem, the Secretary of State (Secretary) shall, upon request, record the place of birth as Israel.
(Sec. 549) Prohibits, with an exception for acquisition of additional space for the Consulate General in Jerusalem, the obligation of funds appropriated under this Act to create in Jerusalem a new U.S. agency office for the purpose of conducting U.S. business with the Palestinian Authority (PA) over Gaza and Jericho (or any successor Palestinian governing entity) provided for in the Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles.
States that: (1) official U.S.-PA meetings should continue to take place in locations other than Jerusalem; and (2) U.S. officers and employees may continue to meet in Jerusalem on other subjects with Palestinians (including those who occupy positions in the PA).
Amends the Anti-Terrorism Act of 1987 to authorize the President upon congressional notification to waive the prohibition on furthering the interests of the PLO if in the U.S. national interest. Limits the duration of any such waiver to not more than six months at a time and shall not apply beyond 12 months after enactment of this Act.
(Sec. 550) Prohibits funds under this Act from being: (1) obligated for assistance to the PLO for the West Bank and Gaza unless the President has suspended application of the prohibition on assistance to international organizations for the PLO; and (2) obligated or expended for the PA unless the Secretary reports to the Committees on Appropriations that the PA has complied with the standards contained in the Quartet's January 30, 2006 Statement on the Situation in the Middle East that "a future Palestinian government must be committed to nonviolence, recognition of Israel, and acceptance of previous agreements and obligations, including the Roadmap." Authorizes the President to waive such prohibitions if in the U.S. national interest.
Prohibits the use of funds under this Act to provide equipment, technical support, consulting services, or any other assistance to the Palestinian Broadcasting Corporation.
Requires the Secretary, for FY2007, 30 days prior to initial ESF fund obligation for the bilateral West Bank and Gaza program, to certify to the appropriate committees that procedures have been established to ensure Government Accountability Office (GAO) access to appropriate U.S. financial information in order to review the uses of program funds. Requires the Secretary to take all appropriate steps to ensure such assistance is not provided to or through any individual or entity that advocates or engages in terrorist activity.
Prohibits use of funds to honor individuals who commit, or have committed, acts of terrorism.Requires and obligates funds for program audits.;
En 2006, la H.CON.RES.412: Commemorating the thirty-ninth anniversary of the reunification of the city of Jerusalem;
En 2005, la S.J.RES.14: Jerusalem Resolution;
En 2005, la H.R.2601: Foreign Relations Authorization Act, Fiscal Years 2006 and 2007, con disposiciones relativas a Jerusalén semejantes a las antes señaladas para el año 2006;
En 2001, la S.1401 y la H.R. 1646: sobre la Foreign Relations Authorization Act, Fiscal Years 2002 and 2003, que se convertiría en la Ley Pública 107-228, la cuál tiene una sección dedicada al tema:
Section 214: United States policy with respect to Jerusalem as the capital of Israel: "Congress maintains its commitment to relocating the United States Embassy in Israel to Jerusalem and urges the President, pursuant to the Jerusalem Embassy Act of 1995... to immediately begin the process of relocating the United States Embassy in Israel to Jerusalem.... None of the funds authorized to be appropriated by this Act may be available for the publication of any official government document which lists countries and their capital cities unless the publication identifies Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.
En 1999, la H.R. 2584: Jerusalem Embassy Act of 1999;
En 1999, la H.R.2529: To take certain steps toward recognition by the United States of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel;
En 1998, la H.R. 4181: Jerusalem and Berlin Embassy Relocation Act of 1998;
Como nos recuerda Yoram Ettinger:
... the State Department never viewed Jerusalem as part of the Jewish state. In 1949, President Harry S. Truman followed Secretary of State George Marshall’s policy, pressuring Israel to refrain from annexing any part of Jerusalem and to accept the internationalization of the ancient capital of the Jewish people. In 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower, inspired by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, opposed the relocation of Israel’s Foreign Ministry from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem and prohibited official meetings in Jerusalem. In 1967, President Lyndon B. Johnson adopted the Jerusalem policy of Secretary of State Dean Rusk, who opposed Israel’s 1948 declaration of independence. Johnson highlighted the international status of Jerusalem, and warned Israel against the unification of, and construction in eastern, Jerusalem. In 1970, President Richard Nixon collaborated with Secretary of State William P. Rogers in attempting to repartition Jerusalem and to stop Israel’s plans to construct additional neighborhoods in eastern Jerusalem.
In 1995, Congress decided to implement the will of the people, passing overwhelmingly (93:5 in the Senate and 374:37 in the House) the Jerusalem Embassy Act. It stipulated the recognition of unified Jerusalem as Israel’s capital, and the relocation of the U.S. Embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem. However, a presidential national security waiver, which was introduced into the bill by Senator Bob Dole with the support of Prime Minister Itzhak Rabin, has enabled Presidents Bill Clinton, George W. Bush and Obama to avoid implementation.
In 1999, 84 senators realized that the national security waiver was misused by the White House, and that kow-towing to Arab pressure radicalized Arab expectations and belligerence. They attempted to leverage the co-determining and co-equal power of the legislature and to eliminate the waiver provision. But, they were blocked by Clinton and by then-Prime Minister Ehud Barak.
Separándose también en esto de lo sugerido por los anteriores presidentes Clinton y George W, Bush, Obama comunica al Congreso (June 3, 2011), invocando el interés de la seguridad nacional, que EEUU no trasladará la embajada de EEUU en Israel a Jerusalén, alegrando con ello a la Autoridad Palestina. El asunto es comentado en A Symbol of Obama’s Hostility to a United Jerusalem (Jonathan S. Tobin, June 5, 2011) y, también sobre el tema, ZOA Criticizes President Obama For Again Refusing To Move U.S. Embassy To Jerusalem (Morton A. Klein, June 7, 2011), donde dan detalles sobre la normativaamericana sobre el tema.
Into the Fray: Fatuous, feckless Friedman (Martin Sherman, Aug 2, 2012)
How the U.S. Government Should Deal With the Jerusalem As Israel’s Capital Issue (Barry Rubin, August 3, 2012)
US court: No ‘Israel’ on passports of American citizens born in Jerusalem (July 23, 2013) - Un Tribunal federal de DC ha anulado la ley aprobada en 2002 (sección 214.d) por el Congreso por entender que viola las competencias exclusivas del Presidente y supone una invasión de éstas por el Congreso. El ponente de la sentencia, Karen Henderson, escribe: en el gobierno es el Presidente “quien tiene el poder exclusivo para reconocer a un soberano extranjero” y, consiguientemente, es el único que puede determinar, desde la perspectiva de EEUU, quien controla Jerusalén. La sentencia será recurrida ante el Tribunal Supremo. El departamento de Estado se había negado a aplicar esa ley hasta ahora precisamente por las razones ahora amparadas por la sentencia comentada. La norma disputada (ver su artículo 214.d) dice así:
(d) RECORD OF PLACE OF BIRTH AS ISRAEL FOR PASSPORT PURPOSES.— For purposes of the registration of birth, certification of nationality, or issuance of a passport of a United States citizen born in the city of Jerusalem, the Secretary shall, upon the request of the citizen or the citizen’s legal guardian, record the place of birth as Israel.
Middle East politics at play in passport dispute (Mark Sherman, May 1, 2011)
The Justices and Jerusalem (Editorial of The New York Sun, May 8, 2011)
The Constitution, Passports, and Sovereignty (Rick Richman, 10 May 2011) - Y unas notas y apostillas a ese artículo (Yosef Hartuv, May 10, 2011)