Title: Empathy Building Interventions: A Review of Existing Work and Suggestions for Future Directions
DOI or Website Link: PDF 2018
Publication: FORTHCOMING in Doty, J. & Seppala, E., Simon-Thomas, E., Cameron, D., Brown, S., & Worline, M. (Ed): Oxford Handbook of Compassion Science. Oxford University Press
Authors:
Erika Weisz
Jamil Zaki
Date:
Affiliation(s):
Citation:
Comments:
perhaps add a qualities of empathy heading?
They ask the question:
Can empathy be increased?
Is it possible to build empathy through intervention?
Is empathy a fixed capacity?
is empathy a skill that can be developed over time?
"empathy is “triggered” when a perceiver is able to detect someone else’s pain." They confuse pain suffering and empathy. go on about empathy and pain even though they talk about empathy being for all feelings.
Edwin's comments about the nature of empathy
People have a wide variety of levels of empathy.
Peoples level of empathy also changes over time or from moment to moment, ie. is higher or lower.
People have different levels of empathy in different parts of their life. ie for different people in a room.
People have different levels of empathy depending on who they are empathizing with.
People have different levels of empathy depending on the situation.
Question: What are the motivations they mention in this paper?
List them on the Motivation page.
Abstract:
"A major question in the study of empathy—the capacity to share and understand others’ internal states—is whether it can be increased. Scientists have designed a number of effective interventions through which to build empathy, especially in cases where it typically wanes. Here we review these efforts, which often focus on either enhancing individuals’ skills in experiencing empathy or expressing empathy to others.
We then propose a novel approach to intervention based on a motivated account of empathy: teaching people not only how to empathize, but also encouraging them to want to empathize. Research traditions from social psychology offer several ways of increasing empathic motivation, which can complement existing work and broaden the palette of applied scientists seeking to help people develop their capacities to care for and understand others."
Topic Area: (In which field / sector / perspective was this study conducted?)
metastudy.
Definition:(How was empathy defined?)
Empathy encompasses at least three related but distinct subprocesses. Mentalizing refers to the ability to draw inferences about a target’s thoughts and feelings (Davis, 1983).
Experience sharing refers to the process by which someone vicariously experiences another person's emotional state (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1993).
Finally, empathic concern captures a perceiver’s desire to alleviate a target’s distress (Batson, 2008).
Compassion entails recognizing specific negative emotional states (like pain) and subsequently experiencing an urge to help;
empathy involves sharing and understanding a range of emotions, both positive and negative. Empathy also involves both an understanding and a sharing of someone else’s feelings, whereas compassion may not require a perceiver to vicariously share another person’s feelings.
(Were any benefits of empathy mentioned?)
+ individual well-being (Davis, 1983; Mehrabian, 1996; Wei, Liao, Ku, & Shaffer, 2011)
+ prosocial behavior (Batson & Shaw, 1991)."
+ connection. "is a social bridge that allows us to connect with one another."
Blocks to Empathy
They mention various situations where there is not necessarily a block to but but a lack of empathy.
-empathy : predictably fails under certain conditions (Zaki & Cikara, 2015).
-empathy: during conflict (Brewer, 1999; Hein, Silani,Preuschoff, Batson, & Singer, 2010; Sherif, 1936)
-empathy:when interacting with dissimilar others
(Chiao & Mathur, 2010; Mitchell, Macrae, & Banaji, 2006; Singer, Seymour, & O’Doherty, 2006; Xu, Zuo, Wang, & Han, 2009).
Profession reliably diminishes empathy
doctors
(Decety, Yang, & Cheng, 2010; Marquié et al., 2003)
Black patients
(Goyal, Kuppermann, Cleary, Teach, & Chamberlain, 2015; Trawalter, Hoffman, & Waytz, 2012).
Criticisms (Were any criticisms, negative effects or risks of empathy mentioned?)
Fraternity Rape - training empathy lead to more rapes?
Ingroup and Outgroup
Methods: (What were the methods used to train empathy?)
methods organized under these heading.s
Intervention to increase empathic ability.
1. Experienced-based interventions feature tasks that encourage “tuning in” to targets’ internal states.
build empathy for targets by providing a deeper understanding of their thoughts and feelings
(role-play, perspective taking and information sharing,)
imagining themselves in the target’s position
role-play
ie. medical students act as patients in hospital (Wilkes, Milgrom, & Hoffman, 2002).
medical student auditory hallucination simulation (Bunn and Terpstra 2009)
Similar: adolescents for their peers (Jacobs, 1977),
Similar: sex offenders for assault victims (Webster, Bowers, Mann, Marshall, 2005),
Similar: college students for the disabled (Clore & Jeffery, 1972),
imagine the life and feelings of a target of a stigmatized group. (Batson et al., 1997).
imagining the thoughts and feelings of a heroin addict (Batson, Chang, Orr, & Rowland, 2002).
use vignettes, videos, stories, and letters to deliver similar information about targets’ perspectives
white students watched video documenting white privilege and institutional racism (Soble, Spanierman, & Liao, 2011).
Arab participants read and responded to a letter written by a Jewish mother (Shechtman & Tanus, 2006).
meditation (Jazaieri et al., 2015), (Klimecki, Leiberg, Lamm, & Singer, 2013; Weng, Fox, Shackman, & Stodola, 2013),
behavioral (Condon, Desbordes, Miller, & DeSteno, 2013; Leiberg, Klimecki, & Singer, 2011)
considering a target’s internal states.
2. Expression-based interventions help perceivers more effectively convey empathy for a target.
(recognize and respond to targets’ distress)
Recognize internal states
(what to call this?) doctors video example (Riess, Kelley, Bailey, Dunn, & Phillips, 2012).
expression identification - autism - understand others’ expressions and mental states. (e.g., Golan & Baron-Cohen, 2006).
emotion recognition training (Dadds, Cauchi, Wimalaweera, Hawes, & Brennan, 2012).
Conveying empathy?
Empathic displays (e.g., wincing at others’ pain) serve communicative purposes, informing a target that the perceiver understands and shares their suffering (Bavelas, Black, Lemery, & Mullett, 1986).
3. Motivation to empathize, (willing or unwilling to empathize) What are the motives?
approach motives,
avoidance motives, (blocks to empathy)
costly to empathize (Cameron & Payne, 2011; Pancer, Mcmullen, Kabatoff, Johnson, & Pond, 1979; Shaw et al., 1994) or
painful to empathize (Davis et al., 1999).
competition - will impede winning
(edwin Note: culture values: If the culture is based on 'rational actor model' ie people are self interested beginnings,
could build empathy in three ways
1. Self-Oriented Interventions. by changing views of the self, our beliefs influence our behavior
fixed mindsets ver growth mindsets
growth mindsets of empathy predicted greater empathic effort
teach that empathy failures can be overcome with increased effort
teach people that empathy is malleable and can be developed can build their motivation to empathize,
2. Group-Based Interventions. by changing perceived social norms
intergroup bias (Brewer, 1979; Tajfel, 1982).
Intervention techniques that change perceptions of group boundaries
Common Group Identity Model (Gaertner & Dovidio, 1977)
(note: we have a common humanity. local team, community, city, state, country, common humanity)
Change group values to value empathy
ie. tell students entering a college that empathy is a school value. (Nook, Ong, Morelli, Mitchell, & Zaki, under review; Tarrant, Dazeley,& Cottom, 2009).
3. Situation-Based Interventions. changing people’s perception of empathy-inducing situations.
personal benefits of empathy
(1) can help people feel good
(2) can help people satisfy the demands of their important social roles.
help people realize that even if empathy is painful that there will be positive outcomes.
(note: share stories about the benefits of empathy.)
Reaching Personal Goals: show people how empathy will help them with their goals
(idea: what are your current and life goals. Write them up and share how empathy might help you in reaching those goals.)
Role/Identity: (note: as a leader you want to do well and being empathic is part of being a good leader. What are roles: religious leaders, doctor, teacher, social worker,???? )
Target Group: (Who participated in this study / training?)
These are the target groups of each study.
(BATSON + 1997) Female college students
(BATSON + 2002) College students
(BUNN + 2009) Medical Students
(CONDON + 2013) Adults
(CLORE + 1972) College Students
(JACOBS 1977) Adolescents
(JAZAIERI + 2015) Adults
(KLIMECKI + 2012) Adults
(SCHECTMAN + 2006) Arab students
(SOBLE + 2011) College Students
(WEBSTER + 2005) Sex offenders
(WILKES + 2002) Medical Students
(WENG+ 2013) Adults
(Archer 1973) College Students
(BACK + 2007) Oncology fellows
(GOLAN 2006) Adults with Asperger syndrome
(BONVICINI + 2009) Physicians
(RIESS 2012) Otolaryngology residents
(DADDS + 2011) Children with behavioral/emotional problems
Measurements: (About the assessment: How was the change in empathy measured before/after the intervention/method?)
Result: (What was the result?)
Posted By:
Notes: (Any other relevant information)
Study - Participants - Type - Training - Outcome
1
Batson, C. D., Polycarpou, M. P., Harmon-Jones, E., Imhoff, H. J., Mitchener, E. C., Bednar, L. L., … Highberger, L. (1997). Empathy and attitudes: can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group improve feelings toward the group? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(1), 105–118. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.105
Female college students
Experiential
Asked to imagine life and feelings of stigmatized targets (AIDS patient, homeless person, murderer)
More positive attitudes towards members of stigmatized group
2
Batson, C. D., Chang, J., Orr, R., & Rowland, J. (2002). Empathy, Attitudes, and Action: Can Feeling for a Member of a Stigmatized Group Motivate One to Help the Group? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 1656–1666. doi:10.1177/014616702237647
College students
Experiential
Asked to imagine life and feelings of stigmatized target (drug dealer)
Prosocial action on behalf of tigmatized group
3
Bunn, W., & Terpstra, J. (2009). Simulated Auditory Hallucinations. Academic Psychiatry, (December), 457–460.
Medical Students
Experiential
Audio hallucination simulation during neuropsychological testing
Higher score on Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy
4
Condon, P., Desbordes, G., Miller, W. B., & DeSteno, D. (2013). Meditation increases compassionate responses to suffering. Psychological Science, 24(10), 2125–2127. doi:10.1177/0956797613485603
Adults
Experiential
Attended meditation classes led by Tibetan Buddhist lama for 8 weeks
Increased rates of helping a suffering individual
5
Clore, G. L., & Jeffery, K. M. (1972). Emotional role playing, attitude change, and attraction toward a disabled person. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 23(1), 105–111. doi:10.1037/h0032867
College Students
Experiential
College students travelled around campus in wheel chair
Improved attitudes towards disabled people
6
Jacobs, D. (1977). Role playing - Role reversal as a method for training adolescents in empathy. Retrieved from Retrieved from http://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/handle/10393/8194
Adolescents
Experiential
Students role play adolescent interpersonal interactions
No changes in empathy measures
7
Jazaieri, H., Lee, I. a., McGonigal, K., Jinpa, T., Doty, J. R., Gross, J. J., & Goldin, P. R (2015). A wandering mind is a less caring mind: Daily experience sampling during compassion meditation training. The Journal of Positive Psychology, (July), 1–14doi:10.1080/17439760.2015.1025418
Adults
Experiential
Participants attended classes on compassion focused meditation and engaged in daily home meditation
Compassion training increased mindfulness and happiness, which was related to increased caring for others
8
Klimecki, O. M., Leiberg, S., Lamm, C., & Singer, T. (2013). Functional neural plasticity and associated changes in positive affect after compassion training. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991), 23(7), 1552–61. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs142
Adults
Experiential
Attended 1-day course of loving kindness mediation
Increased positive affect in response to distress, and increased activity in brain regions supporting affiliation and positive affect
9
Shechtman, Z., & Tanus, H. (2006). Counseling Groups for Arab Adolescents in an Intergroup Conflict in Israel: Report of an Outcome Study. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 12(2), 119–137. doi:10.1207/s15327949pac1202_2
Arab students
Experiential
Multi-session intervention including reading a letter from a Jewish mother
Increased empathy and reduced hostility toward Israelis
10
Soble, J. R., Spanierman, L. B., & Liao, H.-Y. (2011). Effects of a brief video intervention on White university students’ racial attitudes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(1), 151–157. doi:10.1037/a0021158
College Students
Experiential
Video intervention documenting institutional racism
Increased empathy and racial awareness
11
Webster, S. D., Bowers, L. E., Mann, R. E., Marshall, W. L., & E, L. (2005). Sexual Abuse : A Journal of Research and Treatment. Sexual Abuse a Journal of Research and Treatment, 17(1), 63–77. doi:10.1177/107906320501700107
Sex offenders
Experiential
Sex offenders complete role-play paradigms
Improved recognition of consequences for victims
12
Wilkes, M., Milgrom, E., & Hoffman, J. R. (2002). Towards more empathic medical students: A medical student hospitalization experience. Medical Education, 36(6), 528–533. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2923.2002.01230.x
Medical Students
Experiential
Medical students admitted to stay overnight in hospital
Students endorse interest in improving hospital condition
13
Weng, H. Y., Fox, A. S., Shackman, A. J., & Stodola, D. E. (2013). Compassion training alters altruism and neural responses to suffering, 24(7), 1171–1180. doi:10.1177/0956797612469537.Compassion
Adults
Experiential
Participants listened to 30-minute audio recordings featuring compassion meditation
Compassion meditation increased altruistic behavior and activity in brain regions supporting social cognition and emotion regulation
14
(Archer 1973)
College Students
Expressive
Emotion recognition & empathic responding
Improved peer relationship rating scores and performance on affect sensitivity scale.
15
*Back, A. L., Arnold, R. M., Baile, W. F., Fryer-Edwards, K. a, Alexander, S. C., Barley, G. E., … Tulsky, J. a. (2007). Efficacy of communication skills training for giving bad news and discussing transitions to palliative care. Archives of Internal Medicine, 167(5), 453–460. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.5.453
Oncology fellows
Expressive
Communication training workshop
Improved in communication skills, including empathic verbal skills
16
Golan, O., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2006). Systemizing empathy: teaching adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism to recognize complex emotions using interactive multimedia. Development and Psychopathology, 18(2), 591–617. doi:10.1017/S0954579406060305
Adults with Asperger syndrome
Expressive
Computer-based training in recognizing emotions in faces and voices
Improvements on similar emotion recognition tasks (but not dissimilar tasks)
17
Bonvicini, K. a., Perlin, M. J., Bylund, C. L., Carroll, G., Rouse, R. a., & Goldstein, M. G. (2009). Impact of communication training on physician expression of empathy in patient encounters. Patient Education and Counseling, 75(1), 3–10. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2008.09.007
Physicians
Expressive
Communication training workshop
Training increased physicians' global empathy and empathy expressions during patient interactions
18
*Riess, H., Kelley, J. M., Bailey, R. W., Dunn, E. J., & Phillips, M. (2012). Empathy training for resident physicians: a randomized controlled trial of a neuroscienceinformed curriculum. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 27(10), 1280–6. doi:10.1007/s11606-012-2063-z
Otolaryngology residents
Expressive
Empathy-relational skills training focused on underlying neurobiology of empathy
Improved knowledge of neurobiology of empathy, selfreported capacity to empathize, and patient satisfaction
19
Dadds, M. R., Cauchi, a J., Wimalaweera, S., Hawes, D. J., & Brennan, J. (2012). Outcomes, moderators, and mediators of empathic-emotion recognition training for complex conduct problems in childhood. Psychiatry Research, 199(3), 201–207. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2012.04.033
Children with behavioral/emotional problems
Expressive
Emotion recognition training
Improvements in affective empathy and conduct problems in kids with high callous/unemotional traits
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