Puquios

Introduction

"A unique system for tapping underground water sources was developed in the drainage of the Rio Grande de Nasca in Pre-Columbian times. This technique involved the excavation of horizontal trenches and tunnels to reach subterranean aquifers that hold water deep beneath the ground. Still in use today by the inhabitants of the valley, these tunnels, wells and trenches are known collectively as puquios." - Nasca Puquios and Aqueducts (PDF) 

About Puquios

Puquios Design

The design of these is very similar to that of a quannat, except that the shafts of puquios are designed to allow people to access the water from above, instead of just at the exit of the tunnel, as appears to be the case with quannat.

Gallery

"A typical puquio consists of several parts. A horizontal tunnel or "gallery" is excavated laterally until it intersects with the underground aquifer. The walls of the tunnels are lined with river cobbles without the use of mortar, and at the uppermost end, the water filters between the stones into the gallery (Schreiber and Lancho 1995:234). The roof of the gallery is constructed from either dressed stone slabs or from wooden logs, the latter having to be replaced at regular intervals (ibid.) Most of these excavated tunnels are relatively narrow, generally less than one meter square, with barely enough room for a crouching person to move through them. Other galleries appear to have been constructed by digging an open trench and then filling it in after building the walls and ceiling of the conduit (tunnel) at the bottom. These tunnels are generally of greater height (about 2 meters) than those made by tunneling through deeper levels to reach the water source. The length of these galleries is quite variable, ranging from a few meters to as long as 372 meters." - Nasca Puquios and Aqueducts (PDF) 

Ojos

"Spaced above the galleries at varying intervals are funnel-shaped holes, or ojos, which had several functions. They provided access to the water in the tunnels and thus could be used as wells by the local inhabitants. They also served as entrances to the tunnels for annual cleaning of the galleries--a task which continues up to the present day. Finally, they provided air and light to the chambers for these workers. The opening of the conical ojos can be as wide as 15 meters on the surface of the ground, narrowing down to a meter or two at the bottom. Care had to be taken to insure that debris did not wash down the sides of the pit and fill or contaminate the water in the tunnel. It seems likely, therefore, that some type of enclosure or cap may have been placed over the opening when not in use. Several of these ojos have been reconstructed in recent years to include spiral, cobble-stone ramps leading to the bottom, such as those now visited by tourists at Cantalloq in the Nasca Valley. It is not certain that the ancient Nasca people had such elaborate construction in each of the ojos which were spaced between 10 and 30 meters apart and could number in the dozens for each major puquio. According to Schreiber and Lancho, the record number of ojos for a single system is the Totoral puquio in the Las Trancas tributary (Schreiber and Lancho 1995:244)." - Nasca Puquios and Aqueducts (PDF) 

Trenches / Aqueducts

"The lower end of the puquio system consists of open trenches which emerge from the tunnels allowing public access to the water for drinking, bathing, and washing clothes as well as a means to channel it for agricultural purposes. These trenches or aqueducts are V-shaped, often with terraced sides lined with river cobbles that form retaining walls. The bases of these trenches can be as narrow as a meter and the tops as wide as 10 meters (Schreiber and Lancho 1995:234). In the Nasca Valley, ten of the puquios are open trenches for their entire lengths, indicating that the water table is relatively close to the surface in these locations (ibid.:236). Some of these open trenches can be quite long; one at Achako in the Nasca Valley is over one kilometer in length, while many others are at least a half kilometer long." - Nasca Puquios and Aqueducts (PDF) 

Kochas

"Many of the open trenches empty into small reservoirs, or kochas, which serve as wells and as distribution points for directing the water into irrigation canals (acequias) According to Schreiber and Lancho, modern kochas are constantly being renovated sometimes being lined with concrete or having concrete slabs and wooden sluice gates added to them (ibid.:236)." - Nasca Puquios and Aqueducts (PDF) 

Life Expectancy

1-2 thousand years (possibly longer) The river stone sides have a long life expectancy, but the wooden ceiling of the gallery need fairly frequent replacement, which is still ongoing today. Modern updates to these systems including cement may have shorter lifespans than the stone parts.

"The dating of the puquios has been a matter of much controversy in recent years. It has always been assumed by most Andeanists that they had been first constructed in Pre-Columbian times, if not by the Incas, then by earlier cultures such as the Huari or the Nasca. In 1991, Monica Barnes and David Fleming proposed another view in which they argue that the filtration systems were built by the Spanish during the Colonial period. They point to the use of similar galleries in Iran (where they are known as qanats) from which the Arabs disseminated the technology to northern Africa and eventually to Spain, among other areas. In the New World, filtration galleries are found in Mexico, California and Bermuda in addition to Peru (Barnes and Flemming 1991: 50-51). The authors claim that the galleries in Mexico were constructed by the Spanish in 1526, before they had ever arrived in Peru, using their knowledge of the Islamic qanats present in their homeland. They further argue that the earliest Colonial documents from Peru fail to mention the presence of puquios prior to the seventeenth century, and therefore the puquios in Peru must have been constructed by the Spanish."  - Nasca Puquios and Aqueducts (PDF) 

Benefits of Puquios

These capture river water with fault lines that lie perpendicular to the rivers (), and redirect it into locations for future use. The rivers in the area where they were built are known to carry water 2 years out of 7, so water harvesting and storage for the dry years helps the local people survive.

Con: Requires rain to recharge. Ground water is at increasing risk from over extraction as well as pollution from mining, fracking, livestock farms, and landfills.

Solution: Scientists should monitor the geology and water storage, to help communities maintain or even improve these systems.

Fuel Types: Water Cycle + Gravity

Resources

Nasca Puquios and Aqueducts (PDF) 

These puzzling holes in the arid valleys of southern Peru tell us there was once a flourishing, sophisticated society here. 

Potential Restoration Steps

These were among the "General steps for reclaiming abandoned and damaged stepwells", but may also be useful in reclaiming these ancient water harvesting systems for modern and future use.

Similar Systems

Dew Pools

"A dew pond is an artificial pond usually sited on the top of a hill, intended for watering livestock. Dew ponds are used in areas where a natural supply of surface water may not be readily available. The name dew pond (sometimes cloud pond or mist pond) is first found in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society in 1865. Despite the name, their primary source of water is believed to be rainfall rather than dew or mist."

"They are usually shallow, saucer-shaped and lined with puddled clay, chalk or marl on an insulating straw layer over a bottom layer of chalk or lime. To deter earthworms from their natural tendency of burrowing upwards, which in a short while would make the clay lining porous, a layer of soot would be incorporated or lime mixed with the clay. The clay is usually covered with straw to prevent cracking by the sun and a final layer of chalk rubble or broken stone to protect the lining from the hoofs of sheep or cattle. To retain more of the rainfall, the clay layer could be extended across the catchment area of the pond. If the pond's temperature is kept low, evaporation (a major water loss) may be significantly reduced, thus maintaining the collected rainwater. According to researcher Edward Martin, this may be attained by building the pond in a hollow, where cool air is likely to gather, or by keeping the surrounding grass long to enhance heat radiation. As the water level in the basin falls, a well of cool, moist air tends to form over the surface, restricting evaporation." - Wikiwand: Dew Pond 

Rock Catchments

"In Marsabit County, Northern Kenya, Caritas Switzerland has, together with communities, constructed three rock catchment systems. In this region, there are no permanent rivers and the dry seasons can get severe. Moreover, not all groundwater sources are suitable for human consumption and people often rely on scarce and mostly unprotected water sources. Only about 35% of the population have access to safe water."

"The rock catchments collect rainwater from large bare rock surfaces before it gets channeled to storage tanks. The three systems serve 3,500 people and can store a total of 2.34 million litres of water per rainy season. This covers for approximately three months of human water consumption."

Life Expectancy: unknown

Pro: Uses natural processes to capture rain water, and store it in large cisterns for future use. Owner ship is given to a trained individual who accepts payment from community members that go towards maintenance and repairs of the system.

Con: Requires rain to recharge. Payment system may exclude people who need water most.

Solution: 

Fuel Types: Water Cycle + Gravity

Khadin 

These have been used for over 5,000 years, and some ancient remnants of them still visible in places like Peru and India.

Life Expectancy: centuries with little maintenance

Pro: Uses natural such as rocks and dirt, rainfall, and gravity. This makes them cheap and easy to construct

Con: A lot of water can be lost to evaporation.

Solution: Modern versions of condensers work much better, using active components like fans to boost efficiency.

Fuel Types: Water cycle + gravity

Complimentary Options

SUDS 

SUDs are systems that help guide water once it has made contact with the ground, including swales, water gardens, road-side drainage, dams, reservoirs, etc. There will be another post on this massive topic later, but until then, the following talks about simple, practical ways to get started on the topic. 

Peru’s ancient water systems can help protect communities from shortages caused by climate change.

Tools & Resources

Landscaping Know-How

Organizations

Africa

Europe

UK

Mexico

South America

Maps

Grants & Funding

Oceana

Australia

Western Australia

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