Waterways
Table of Contents
Introduction
Headwaters, streams, gullies, rivers, and other types of waterways are under increasing threat from run off pollution, illegal dumping, bank erosion, and over extraction of water.
Another threat comes in the form of obstructions such as dams and weirs which prevent migratory species such as salmon, shad, and eels from navigating between feeding and breeding locations.
About This Page
This page explores Types of Waterways, the Dangers to our Waterways, then we explore proven Solutions to help protect and re-wild waterways.
At the bottom of the page we offer Tools & Guides, Organizations who help protect and repair waterways, followed by some Maps.
Waterway Anatomy
Head Waters
This refers to the source of a river. Underground water might push up to the surface, producing spring-fed headwaters, or seasonal rains might fill up wadies which tend to be dry year round, except in the rainy season. In colder climates and higher altitudes, snow caps might melt to produce snow melt streams. Headwaters are generally steep and fast-moving.
In places such as the USA, legal loopholes leave these vital parts of rivers unprotected from polluters. Headwaters also tend to be understudied, putting them at further risk of abuse from companies and farms.
Tributaries
These are the streams and rivers that feed into a larger stream or river. These can make it tricky to determine the "source" of a river, but generally the larger body of water will be chosen as the main source as investigators travel up to pinpoint the exact point a river supposedly comes from.
Flow
"“Flow” refers to the water running in a river or stream. There are two important aspects to a river’s natural flow. First, there is the amount of water that flows in the river. Some rivers get enough water from their headwaters, tributaries, and rain to flow all year round. Others go from cold, raging rivers to small, warm streams as the snowpack runs out, or even stop flowing completely. A river’s natural ups and downs are called “pulses.” Like a human being’s pulse, a river’s natural flow of water is life support for animals, plants, and fish, delivering what they need to survive at the right times. When we divert water away from a river, we change the river’s natural flow.
The second component of natural flow is how water moves through a river’s channel. In a natural, wild river, the water runs freely. But in more developed or degraded rivers, dams and other structures can slow or stop a river’s flow. When a river’s flow is blocked, migratory fish like salmon can suffer, unable to move up or downstream." - WeKivaIsland: The Anatomy of a River
Channel
"The shape of a river channel depends on how much water has been flowing in it for how long, over what kinds of soil or rock, and through what vegetation. There are many different kinds of river channels – some are wide and constantly changing, some crisscross like a braid, and others stay in one main channel between steep banks. The bends in a river called “meanders” are caused by the water taking away soil on the outside of a river bend and laying it down the inside of a river bend over time. Each kind of river channel has unique benefits to the environment." - WeKivaIsland: The Anatomy of a River
Meanders
These are the curves in a river, created by erosion and deposition. Specifically the process where flowing water strips away materials from the outer bend, and deposits those materials on the inside of the river bend over time. Healthy rivers can look like squiggly snakes on the landscape, and this increased surface area or edge effect of water against dry land has many benefits on biodiversity as well as retaining water in the land.
When humans straighten rivers we create many problems from negatively impacting wildlife to increasing the chances of devastating floods and localized drought susceptibility.
Shorelines
Also referred to with names such as riverbank and streambank. These act as homes for many species, but can change drastically over time due to erosion, or rivers changing course entirely.
Riparian Border / Zone
This refers to the vegetative areas that help stabilize shorelines with their roots. They often consist of grasses, sedges and reeds, shrubs, and perhaps most importantly, trees which help reduce flood damage with their extensive root systems.
Riparian zones are particularly important in their ability to protect waterways from pollution, especially from farms, gardens, and urban areas.
Flood Plains
These relatively flat, low-lying areas are common next to rivers, lakes, and even coastal areas which are prone to flooding.
Flood plains are important for wildlife species who often rely on flooding to reproduce (such as frogs and wetland birds), and they can help protect human communities from flooding.
Historically we've filled in and raised these spaces to farm on or build houses, and this has led to catastrophic flooding, loss of homes, and even deaths. Restoring floodplains can be a highly effective step in creating Sustainable Drainage Systems to protect our communities even as climate change makes flooding more unpredictable and intense.
Wetlands
These can include a myriad of specific ecosystems, but their general function is that of a sponge, helping to reduce flooding, by storing water used by many static and migratory species.
Bogs
Bogs, Mires, and Peatlands tend to be soggy year round, supporting various species of moss, which sequester massive amounts of carbon. These have been drained for grazing and crop land. In certain countries, such as Scotland they have been routinely burned for the hunting industry. On top of all this abuse many countries also harvest and sell off their peat moss for gardening, though alternatives with lower ecological impact exist.
Marshes
These wetlands are dominated by grasses, reeds, and sedges. They may be dotted with other plants such as shrubs and trees
Swamps
These wetlands are characterized by their higher density of trees. Other wetland types tend to have a smattering of shrubs and water-loving trees, but swamp trees along with their unique routes provide the bulk of swamp biodiversity.
River Mouth
This refers to the area where a river widens and empties into a larger body such as a lake, bay, or ocean.
Deltas
These consist of the built up silt deposited by a river when it empties into a larger body of water. They might be flat (often fan-shaped) and devoid of vegetation, serving as mud flats for birds such as terns, as well as crabs, or even lung fish. They can also build up higher over time. The rich silt can support grasses, reeds, and even trees, which can in turn support nesting birds, as well as other species.
Types of Waterways
Bayous
Bayous are gully-type waterways in North America. They support many species including beaver, alligators, and many more. These tend to be deep with steep sides, and have at least a stream-like flow year round, but rise to river-like depths and widths after heavy rains.
Streams
Chalk Streams
There are only around 200 of these in the world.
"Over 85% of the world’s chalk streams are found in England.
They are unique to England, France and Denmark. They are as internationally rare and ecologically important as coral reefs or rainforests." - WildFish: Chalk Streams
Norfolk's Forgotten Chalk Streams
A ~15 minute video about these unique ecosystems and what we can do to save them.
Norfolk's Forgotten Chalk Streams - Update
This 7 minute video shows the improvements since the last video. The video highlights specific species that are now thriving, including comments about why they are so important for these ecosystems.
Bare in mind that these are British chalk streams, so the appropriate plants may be different if you are trying to revive calk waterways in other countries.
Threats to Chalk Streams
Over-extraction from water companies.
Excess phosphorus from farms and sewage.
Inadequate monitoring
More info can be found in the UK BAP Priority Habitat Descriptions
Rivers
These are the widest type of waterway. They are generally permanent, except for extreme cases of drought and/or over-extraction. Rivers such as the Colorado River, and the Mississippi River in the USA have run dangerously low in recent decades due to livestock farming, and over extraction of water to grow feed crops. Drought conditions pushed water levels so low that boasts became stranded. Rivers like the Thames in the UK have also run dry in places.
Waddi
A waddi is the middle-eastern term for a temporary waterway formed after rains in otherwise dry environments.
Creating gully plugs in these can help slow down water, which both hydrates the surrounding environment and can help create pockets of biodiversity in otherwise barren lands. People have found building these simple interventions can help rejuvenate lost grasslands, help list species return to dry areas, and even help create downstream springs as the ground water levels improve.
Threats to Waterways
Pollution for Agriculture (& Gardening)
Agriculture uses far more of our land than any other human activity (about 46% of Earth's habitable land). - Our World in Data
By contrast gardening has a much smaller impact, space-, fertilizer-, and pesticide-use wise than farming. However learning water-friendly practices can help you be a part of positive change even on a very small scale. After all, every step in the right direction counts!
Livestock Farming
Livestock and their feed use a whopping 77% of that agricultural land, meaning they have a particularly outsized impact on our land and waterways. - Our World in Data
Because so much land is used to provide livestock feed and grazing, erosion from equipment use, chemical use, poor irrigation practices, overgrazing, and hoof action all contribute to the decline of farm soil as well as the waterways that those soils eventually wash into.
In addition to using more space, livestock outnumber humans by 10s of billions. This is a problem because certain species, such as pigs and cows eat far more than a human can per day, and by extention, this means they produce far more manure than we do in sewage. As more farm animals are pushed into smaller spaces (99% of livestock in the USA are raised in factory farms, and even "grass fed" animals generally end up in feedlots).
A factory farm can produce more manure than an entire city of humans!
Livestock waste has to go somewhere. Farmers are increasingly storing this stinky waste in manure lagoons, which can leak or overflow into waterways during heavy rains. After some time to process, the manure is then spread as a slurry over fields, but again, this can then wash into waterways, where it can cause thousands or 10s of thousands of fish deaths very quickly.
Ploughing
There are a lot of problems with this ancient farming method, which degrades farm land and intensifies drought conditions.
Ploughing's greatest threat to waterways is the increased erosion of healthy soil from fields, which causes sedimentation, nitrification, and die-off events of life in waterways.
Pesticide Use
Pesticides and spread on the wind or run into water ways during rain events. Pesticides van build up in humans, livestock, soil, and bodies of water. Even worse is that they can become ineffective over time, leading to farmers using more or stronger chemicals.
Click the Non-Lethal Pest Control button to learn about pesticide-free ways to protect crops and animals from predators and insects.
Factory Pollution
Fossil Fuel Extraction & Spills
Mining & Abandoned Mines
Water Extraction
Water extraction is also a growing threat to waterways, with scientists warning that we are using up water faster than a growing number of regions can replenish naturally.
Check out our Water page to see how agriculture uses far more water than industry, which uses far more water than urban areas or private homes.
Livestock Farming
Livestock in particular not only outnumber humans and use most of our agricultural land, but their feed and drinking water needs are a growing danger to water security in general. Over extraction of water has made the ground sink in places like California, and rivers around the world have started to dry up as farmers extract water faster than any other industry.
Solutions to Protect Waterways
Combat Over-Extraction
To reduce pressure on our limited water supplies, it helps to first understand which practices use the most water, and make life or policy changes accordingly. On our Water page we explore how humanity uses water, from the most water-thirsty industries, to the less intense domestic water uses.
You can also explore our Livestock Water Use page, which explores how livestock farming has been drying up rivers and other water supplies around the world.
Pebble & Gravel Restoration
12:21 minute video
Reduce Pollution
Agricultural water pollution is potentially the most common kind, since almost half the habitable portion of Earth's land is used for agricultural purposes, with 77% of that farm land being used to grow livestock feed and raise animals. - Our World in Data
Explore our (general) Water Pollution page to learn about different sources of water pollution including aquaculture, factory, mining, livestock, human sewage, and many other common types of water pollution. This page also explores ocean water pollution, rather than just freshwater.
Our Plastic Cleanup page explores the many methods and devices currently in use for reducing plastic in our water bodies. This page also includes info about ponds and oceans, plus charities you can join or support.
Remove Barriers
Some barriers like beaver dams can be highly beneficial to waterways and their surrounding ecosystems. However, man-made structures can cause all kinds of problems from serious erosion and increased water pollution, to the extinction of migratory species such as salmon and eels. Non-migratory species such as freshwater mussels can also be seriously impacted, and species who rely on specific depths may also disappear.
We explore some ways to combat these issues in our Wildlife Corridor page which discusses dam removal, culverts, and other methods of helping wildlife pass comfortably under bridges or past other obstacles.
Riparian Borders
These underappreciated eco-systems are major workhorses which are under constant threat from humans, especially on farms or due to development. They offer many benefits, so restoring and protecting them are critical for the following reasons.
Bank Stabilization
Riparian borders help stabilize the banks of waterways with their roots helping to hold soil in place, even during major flooding or rain events. Their foliage can also help reduce the impact of erosion, even capturing some of what is washed downstream, and helping to build up certain areas.
Biodiversity Boosting
These are vital habitats which can support as much as 80% in desert eco-systems, even though they make up a relatively small fraction of space in a given region.
Many species nest near waterways, sometimes directly in the bank or in nearby trees. They can function as critical habitat for species like fish, especially when large pieces of wood fall into water, creating nesting and hiding locations for them.
Riparian ecosystems can also function as wildlife corridors, especially through spaces that have been converted for human development. Similarly they can act as resting spots for migratory species.
Clean Water
Riparian buffers help keep pollutants and excess sediment out of waterways, meaning cleaner water for people and animals who use that water. Reduced pollution helps organisms, who in turn help clean water down stream, such as shellfish, and seagrasses.
"One analysis of multiple studies ... found that buffers in general removed 67% of nitrogen, and wider buffers of at least 50 meters can remove 85%!" - SciShow
Stabilize Water Temperatures
The shade provided by plants, particularly trees helps maintain temperatures that support life. This means more available oxygen in the water. As the climate gets hotter, rivers that have been stripped of their trees can become so warm that fish and other species die off.
Warmer water also translates to faster evaporation, meaning rivers are more likely to run dry during droughts when their banks have been deforested.
"Just 30 meters of plants on each side of a river can help keep the water temperature the same as if the river flowed through a massive forest." - SciShow
How Plants are Bringing Rivers Back
Riparian borders prevent erosion, protect waterways from pesticides and other types of run off. They help keep waterways cooler, which minimizes deaths caused by large temperature swings. They also provide habitat for all kinds of animals, including places to feed, reproduce, or simply to travel through in our increasingly divided landscapes.
Explore our Trees page to learn about successful planning, common mistakes to avoid, and our growing list of organizations, governments, and programs offering free or cheap trees. The page also includes resources like grants for farmers or schools to put towards trees and planting/growing supplies.
Greenway or greenbelts have many uses, but they can work particularly well when combined with waterways, maintaining or even expanding riparian borders as part of a community's flood prevention system and nature preservation.
Stabilizing Banks
Stabilizing Streambanks Naturally
5:31 minute video about stabilizing streambanks with natural materials to help rebuild them naturally, vs. heavier duty interventions which can cause more degradation over time.
Tools & Guides
The Science Behind the Need for Riparian Buffer Protection offers recommendations for minimum buffer zones according to different needs and situations. These minimums can change depending on adjacent land use (livestock and pesticide use for example), and other factors such as soil type.
Stream Quantification Tool (SQT) "Traditional stream restoration techniques focus on the number of linear feet of stream restored, but not enough on the quality of those restored streams. The Stream Quantification Tool (SQT) – developed by EDF in conjunction with scientists and technical experts – uses a different approach designed to bring greater confidence to stream mitigation and restoration projects."
JBA Trust "We are a charity that aims to improve people's resilience to risks in the water environment by enabling research, education and engagement". Their YouTube channel is full of useful demonstrations of how man-made obstacles influence waterways and waterway safety.
Free Software for Stream Simulation
FishXing allows users to evaluate multiple culvert designs and effects on fish passage. fs.fed.us/biology/nsaec/fishxing
HY-8, V-7.0, produced by the Federal Highway Administration, is intended for hydraulic capacity design. fhwa.dot.gov/ engineering/hydraulics/software/hy8
HEC-RAS is a river modeling program produced by the Army Corps of Engineers. It facilitates hydraulic calculations across a network of natural and constructed channels. These simulations may be conducted in either a 1-dimensional or 2-dimensional model setup. The use of a 2D model in HEC-RAS allows for increased visualization of stream velocities and flows based on various design scenarios. These models will require data gathered during the site assessment stage and the analysis of baseflow and stormflow discharges. hec.usace.army.mil/software/hec-ras
River2D is a two-dimensional river modeling program created by Dr. Peter Steffler at the University of Alberta. The program lets users evaluate natural channel flow. Though the program does not directly allow for placing culverts within the model, the bed may be manipulated at the intended culvert location to allow for modeling of anticipated velocities. Most importantly, River2D uses Physical Habitat Simulation (PHABSIM) to determine usable habitat areas for specified fish species. The program contains many species habitat files; however, most are endemic to northern areas. The user may create their own species habitat files using the templates provided within the program.
Resources & Guides
Europe
Scotland
SEPA's Engineering in the Water Environment Good Practice Guide, Riparian Vegetation Management "This document is one of a series of good practice guides produced by SEPA to help people involved in the selection of sustainable engineering solutions that minimize harm to the water environment. This Guide provides guidance on the establishment and sustainable management of vegetation in the riparian zone of rivers, lochs and wetlands for the benefit of the environment and people."
North America
Canada
Alberta
Indicators for Assessing Environmental Performance of Watersheds in Southern Alberta (PDF) This gives general guidance, but doesn't focus much on specific species.
Organizations
Africa
Cameroon
Cameroon Wildlife Conservation Society (CWCS) "is a lead national environment NGO in Cameroon founded in February 1997. The organisation’s head office is in Yaoundé. CWCS is administered by a board of directors with more than 100 registered members comprising environment experts, young conservation professionals and students."
Rainforest Trust "is working with local partner, Cameroon Wildlife Conservation Society (CWCS), to elevate the protected status of Douala-Edea Wildlife Reserve to a national park while increasing the reserve by 375,303 acres of mangrove forests, rivers, wetlands and marine habitats. Collectively, this expansion and conversion to a national park will actively safeguard a total of 741,000 acres."
Europe
Dam Removal Europe "Rivers have always provided fundamental and vital services for mankind and the environment. However, dams disrupt the natural functioning of rivers and can cause a wide-scale decline in fish and other river wildlife. For these reasons, it is necessary to remove these barriers to return rivers to their natural, free-flowing state."
UK
Catchment Based Approach (CaBA) "is a community-led approach that engages people and groups from across society to help improve our precious water environments. CaBA Partnerships are now actively working in 100+ catchments across England and Wales."
WildFish "We aim to inspire, inform and involve everyone who can take action.
Wild fish populations are collapsing as their habitats are destroyed faster than anything else. Most of our rivers fail to reach ecological targets. Open net salmon farming is ravaging wild salmon and sea trout and all fish are threatened by abstraction, barriers, and pollution."
England
Gaywood River Revival "Restoring Norfolk's Forgotten Chalk Stream" "Join us in working towards solutions that will transform this rare but abused chalk stream into an asset for the people of King's Lynn and West Norfolk"
North America
USA
Florida
Basin Alliance work to protect the "Choctawhatchee River [which] is the third largest in Florida by volume and the fourth longest waterway in the state. The river provides 90% of the freshwater in Choctawhatchee Bay, and remains home to a wide variety of plants and animals."
Minnesota
The Mississippi Watershed Management Organization "works to protect and improve water quality, habitat and natural resources in an urban watershed that drains directly into the Mississippi River. We are a joint-powers local government unit and one of approximately three dozen watershed organizations in the Twin Cities metropolitan area."
Pennsylvania
Department of Environmental Protection are helping restore the American Ell and fresh-water mussels.
Oceana
Australia
Greening Australia: Reef Aid "To improve water quality on the Great Barrier Reef, we are working with landholders, communities and Traditional Owners to rebuild eroding gullies and restore vital coastal wetlands across the catchment."
OZ Fish "Through the power of many, we are delivering fish habitat rehabilitation projects across Australia. Our network of recreational fishers brings the right expertise to the table and activates local organisations. When you become an OzFish member you can connect with your local chapter and become part of protecting our native fish and habitat. Because healthier waterways will mean more fish and better fishing."
Maps
International
Free-Flowing Rivers (interactive map) "Map of the world’s free-flowing rivers. The intensity of blue indicates the length of free-flowing rivers, red the length of impacted rivers." Impact in this case refers to dams weirs, and other physical barriers to aquatic species or even the entire flow of water bodies.
Asia
China
Europe
UK
Dam Removal Map Europe (interactive)
The River Trust: Is My River Fit to Play In? "This map shows where the sewerage network discharges treated sewage and overflows of untreated sewage and storm water into rivers in England & Wales in 2022. Please note, we are still waiting for spill data from Hafren Dyfrdwy (Severn Trent) in Wales."
North America
USA
Water Scarcity and Fish Imperilment Driven by Beef Production (Paper with maps)
Who Are The Top Toxic Water Polluters in Your State? Interactive map. Scroll down for the full list, and click the arrow under the list to find your state. Some of the worst polluters are livestock related, including meat-processing plants.
Florida
Funding
Europe
Fund your dam removal "Want to remove a ‘ready to go ‘ dam but need extra funding? Try getting your removal crowdfunded!
We collaborate with WWF on their Crowdfunding Campaigns to remove dams! To see if crowdfunding is the right option for you, read below and also have a look here to see what previous campaigns looked like. Below is a list of information we require to help fundraise for your dam removal separated into three phases."
