Bison
National Bison Day will be celebrated on the 1st Saturday of November.
Table of Contents
Bison Basics
How Bison Affect Their Ecosystems
Bison graze the grasses at different heights, providing nesting grounds for birds. They also roll around and pack down the soil in depressions in the ground known as wallows. Their wallows fill with rainwater and offer breeding pools for amphibians and sources of drinking water for wildlife across the landscape.
Predators & Opportunists
Wolves and grizzly bears are the only large predators of adult bison. Dead bison provide an important source of food for scavengers and other carnivores. Bison will rub against trees, rocks, or in dirt wallows in an attempt to get rid of insect pests. Birds such as the magpie perch on a bison to feed on insects in its coat. The cowbird will also follow close behind a bison, feeding on insects disturbed by its steps.
Bison & Wallow Water Networks
Rain only comes in bursts in the Northern Great Plains, forming vast networks of wetlands in some regions. Pools formed by bison activity collects water above ground for longer periods of time, more broadly across the landscape. Without these wallows, water would only be found in naturally occurring streams and ponds.
Bison & Plants
Wallows help plants, too, by providing a specialized habitat. Several medicinal and rare plants—and plains animal habitats—rely on these depressions.
Bison & Birds
Birds such as long-billed curlew use bison droppings as camouflage. They build nests nearby in patterns that mimick bison droppings. Birds also use bison fur to line their nests. The dense fur provides much-needed warmth and fosters greater nesting success.
Bison & Prairie Dogs
Prairie dogs prefer to nest in areas that bison heavily graze. Short grasses provide ideal areas to dig burrows, and serve as a source of food.
Bison Highways
The bison’s massive heads and shoulders allow them to plow through deep snow, making highways for animals such as pronghorn antelope and elk in the winter months. Their foraging activities in snow also make it possible for other animals to reach grasses that would otherwise be unattainable.
Bison vs Fire
Fire is a natural and healthy phenomenon in prairie ecosystems. Bison grazing limits the loss of nitrogen through fire by reducing the amount of plant litter. Through grazing in patches, the bison helps produce patchiness in fire.
According to the link below, only 7.5% of bison are in the wild or semi wild for conservation, while the other 92.5% are being raised as livestock for meat and other products.
Eurasia
Caucasian Bison
Also known as Wisent are the smaller of the bison species. They like to live in forests mostly, but graze grass and forage from trees. Today most European bison descend from one Caucasian male who was kept in a zoo when their population collapsed, and bred with Białowieża females to revive them. Today many of the wild herds in Poland and Germany are mixed with American Plains bison, but not included in the Bison registry. - Białowieski Park Narodowy
Lowland Bison
Also called the Białowieża bison or Bison bonasus bonasus. Białowieża is a Polish word, pronounced Biawovizha with the ż expressed (hard) like the s in "pleasure".
North America
There were around 50-60 million bison in the 1500s, and their numbers fell to 325 in 1884. Now, "Approximately 30,000 bison live in public and private herds in North America; they are managed for conservation goals. Approximately 400,000 bison are raised as livestock however, wild bison are rare." - NPS
Bison is thought to be an eco-friendly meat, but since most animals are finished on feedlots with grain, just like cattle, there is little to no difference for consumers or the environment.
Plains Bison
Most people know about Plains Bison, which are primarily grazing animals. A study found that reintroducing bison to grasslands helps boost biodiversity and drought resistance to the ecosystem.
Forest Bison
Recently Forest Bison were discovered in Canada, and some breeding animals were shipped to Alaska to help reintroduce them to their old range. These are larger than Plains Bison, and prefer to roam through forests.
Eurasian Bison: Wisent
The Return of the Bison: Europe's Largest Wild Animal
9:24 minute video detailing the known history of the European Bison (or Wisent), how it was saved from near extinction, and some of the more recent reintroduction successes. The people working on the project explain their hopes for the near future of this animal, and mention that due to the Russian war against Ukraine, we don't currently know how well the wild bison around Chernobyl are doing at the moment.
Click the link below to see a useful infographic about how the Wisent fits into the ecosystem as a keystone species.
Plains Bison
Why the US Army Tried to Exterminate the Bison
8:15 minute video about the plains bison massacre and the beginning of their conservation.
Return of the American Bison
14:16 video talks a little about the industrial uses of bison that helped spell it's near extinction, and some of the specific steps taken to help boost the genetic diversity and purity of the 8 herds currently supplying genetic diversity for rewilding projects.
"The Buffalo People"
14:16 minute video about the slaughter of Yellow Stone Bison who wandered outside of the park, and legal struggles for native Americans to bring bison back to their land, to help protect them from needless slaughter.
Wood Bison
Program Reintroduces Previously-Believed Extinct Wood Bison into the U.S.
Wood bison were recently found in a remote forest area in Canada, and the 5:52 minute video beneath talks about their reintroduction to an Alaskan conservation park.
Calls to Action
Visit national parks and communities that are engaging in rewilding for this species return. This helps send the important message that rewilding is financially beneficial, while also connecting yourself (and anyone you are traveling with) to these wild places, and their magnificent inhabitants.
Level 3 Activism
Donate to programs that protect and reintroduce bison.
Levels 3-4 Activism
If bison were once native to your country then contact your local representatives to let them know you want to support rewilding programs that help bring back keystone species like bison.
At last check there was a major bottle neck causing bison from Yellowstone to be culled instead of sent to tribal lands, despite them already being cleared of disease. If this problem still persists then people contacting US leaders should pressure them to help resolve this issue so that tribes can receive healthy bison more easily.
Rewilding Plans & Strategies
An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Restoring the World's Intact Large Mammal Assemblages "Ranges of many large mammals have receded in the last 50 years. Even where complete species rosters remain, overall population numbers for many species represent a fraction of historic densities. The results presented here, however, offer scope for reversing range collapse and erosion of intact faunas through proactive, science-based restoration programs. These opportunities exist in all biomes and could be used to chart a pathway towards recovery of robust large mammal communities across much of the terrestrial realm."
This paper includes a list of Red Listed mammal species who's introduction could help replenish their historical ecosystems. The list includes an estimate of how much area could be restored with their reintroduction, the number of ecoregions that could be restored.
Area that can be restored to intact assemblage after their reintroduction (km2):
American bison: 1 306 979
European bison: 482 477
Number of ecoregions in which reintroduction of the species in at least one grid cell restores an intact mammal assemblage:
American bison: 32
European bison: 6
Number of large habitat blocks (> 10 000 km2) available and number of ecoregions in which they occur (in parentheses):
American bison: 14 (12)
European bison: 2 (2)
Europe
Bison Rewilding Plan (2014-2024) (PDF) "Rewilding Europe’s contribution to the comeback of the European bison"
Considerations for Reintroduction: Location Choices
One size does not fit all: European bison habitat selection across herds and spatial scales "Around 65% of European bison occurrences were in forests, with cows showing a slightly higher forest association than bulls. Forest association did not change markedly across spatial scales, yet differed strongly among herds. Modelling European bison habitat suitability confirmed forest preference, but also showed strong differences in habitat selection among herds. Some herds used open areas heavily and actively selected for them. Similarly, human-pressure variables were important in all herds, but some herds avoided human-dominated areas more than others.
Assessing European bison habitat across multiple herds revealed a more generalist habitat use pattern than when studying individual herds only. Our results highlight that conflicts with land use and people could be substantial if bison are released in human-dominated landscapes. Future restoration efforts should target areas with low road and human population density, regardless of the degree of forest cover. More broadly, our study highlights the importance of considering multiple subpopulations and spatial scales in conservation planning."
Poland
Historical Data on European Bison Management in Białowieża Primeval Forest Can Contribute to a Better Contemporary Conservation of the Species Using historical data, the paper talks about early conservation rules and methods dating back to royal mandates for winter feeding of the species, and unforeseen effects such as increased parasite transmission which may have impacted herd numbers due to the unnatural winter aggregation. The paper talks about hunting of bison and their predators, plus it includes a chart showing bison population, amount of fodder provided and royal hunts since the 1700s.
North America
"Since 2019, 182 bison have gone to the Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation. Of those, 82 animals were transferred to the InterTribal Buffalo Council who distributed them to 18 Tribes in 10 states."
"This transfer is the result of many partners working together: Yellowstone National Park, the Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation, APHIS, Montana Department of Livestock (DOL), the State of Montana, InterTribal Buffalo Council, Yellowstone Forever, Defenders of Wildlife and the Greater Yellowstone Coalition."
"Quarantine was identified as a possible tactic for bison management back in 2001 when the Interagency Bison Management Plan (IBMP) was signed by the Secretaries of Interior and Agriculture and the Governor of Montana. The National Park Service formally pursued a quarantine program in 2014 by initiating a public planning process. The operational quarantine program was approved in May 2018.
APHIS and DOL established the final structural specifications and biosecurity requirements for quarantine facilities in June 2017. The only facilities that currently meet those specifications are located at Stephens Creek in Yellowstone National Park, Corwin Springs in Montana, and the Fort Peck Reservation.
APHIS developed the quarantine protocols in October 2003 and validated them during 2005-2010. Quarantine has three phases:
Phase I - Managers capture bison in or near the park during winter. Bison considered suitable for quarantine based on initial negative tests for brucellosis are isolated in double-fenced quarantine pastures and tested every 30-45 days until all bison test negative for two consecutive testing periods.
Phase II - Bison in these individual test groups undergo brucellosis testing by age and sex requirements described in the 2003 Brucellosis Eradication: Uniform Methods and Rules (APHIS 91–45–013) and are certified as brucellosis-free.
Phase III - Managers can transfer bison to other fenced pastures. In the new location, brucellosis tests are conducted at six and 12 months to provide additional assurance. Managers keep these bison separate from other animals at least until the six-month test is completed. Thereafter, managers can release these bison on public or tribal lands for conservation and cultural purposes."
"Tribes manage at least 55 herds across 19 states, said Troy Heinert, executive director of the InterTribal Buffalo Council."
Canada
Recovery Strategy for the Wood Bison (Bison bison athabascae) in Canada - 2016 [Proposed] This includes info about the specific dangers to wood bison in Canada, their relative statuses in each province, maps indicate disease presence and historical distribution of wood bison herds. They also include a chart of names for bison among different indigenous groups.
Organizations
International
Mossy Earth This organization has a variety of tree-planting programs, but also assists with and helps fund rewilding projects in Africa, Europe, and the USA.
Asia
Azerbaijan
Shahdag National Park You can read about the program in English or Azerbaijani: (Zubrların reintroduksiyası). The park's contact info is here.
Europe
The European Bison Conservation Center (EBCC) "is the International Network gathering European bison breeders from Poland, Germany, Russia, Sweden, Spain, Romania, Belgium, Czech Republic and Belarus. The EBCC is the longterm project of European Bison Friends Society.
The main goal of EBCC is to coordinate the flow and exchange of information between wisent breeders from different European countries. Secondly, the function of EBCC is to create a platform of communication between European bison breeders, decision makers, conservationists and other interested parties to develop a common policy for wisent conservation in Europe, despite the existence of differences in the rules of E. bison conservation in the various European countries."European Bison Friends Society (seated in Poland) "We especially warmly invite organizations and companies. Your financial support will enable us to continue our activities for the protection of European bison."
Rewilding Europe "It is from this low point that the European bison has slowly but surely inched its way back, supported by various breeding programmes and reintroductions, with the first bison released back into the wild in Poland’s Białowieża Forest in 1954. Over the last 10 years the estimated number of free-roaming European bison has increased from 2579 to 7000 individuals, with the largest herds found in Belarus and Poland. Rewilding Europe’s own rewilding efforts mean over 100 European bison roam now free across the Southern Carpathians of Romania, while the Rhodope Mountains of Bulgaria have been home to a small but growing wild bison population since 2019 – the first time the animal has roamed free here since the Middle Ages."
Belarus
Belovezhskaya Pushcha "National Park "Belovezhskaya Pushcha" is one of the largest forests of Europe plains, which has preserved to this day in a relatively untouched state. Its territory is divided by the state border into two parts - Belarusian and Polish." также на русском языке і па-беларуску.
Poland
Belovezhskaya Pushcha "National Park "Belovezhskaya Pushcha" is one of the largest forests of Europe plains, which has preserved to this day in a relatively untouched state. Its territory is divided by the state border into two parts - Belarusian and Polish." также на русском языке і па-беларуску.
Białowieża National Park "The National Park is situated in the north-east part of Poland, in podlaskie voivodeship. The Park covers the central part of Białowieża Forest."
"The park comprises 3 administrative units: Orłówka Protective Unit, Hwoźna Protective Unit and the European Bison Breeding Center (covering three breeding reserves and European Bison Show Reserve)."
"... Białowieża Forest became last mainstay for the lowland European bison. The process of its reinstatement, bringing it back to nature started right there. At present, Białowieża Forest comprises the largest free-living population of European bison in the world. There are approximately 500 European bison living in the Polish part of Białowieża Forest."The Breeding Center of European Bison "In Breeding Centre of European Bison tourists can observe bison’s family on a specially designated area. The unique chance to see bisons so close to Warszawa."
Wisent.org "Kompleksowy projekt ochrony żubra przez Lasy Państwowe"
Russia
The Prioksko-Terrasny Nature Biosphere Reserve's Bison Breeding Centre (BBC) "It is the centre of European bison breeding, a place for research in biology, ecology, bison ethology, methods of bison keeping, feeding and transportation. Besides, specialists from other bison breeding organizations do a course in the bison breeding centre." Their original breeding stock came from Poland. "Now the bison breeding centre is carrying on the activities on the preservation of bison gene pool in Russia; it supplies with the animals the Smolensk, Kaluga, Bryansk Regions and other districts to create stable wild populations, as well as continues the selection work."
Ust-Buotama Bisonarium "Bisonarium is a nursery established in 2006 with the purpose of increasing the population of bison that are currently listed in the International Red Book.
In 2006, 30 forest bison donated by the Government of Canada were imported from Elk Island Nature Reserve. Now in Yakutia there are already more than 120 forest bison, this proves that they are fully adapted to the Yakut conditions.
When visiting the bisonarium, you will be accompanied by its employee, who will tell you the rules of behavior on the territory of the bisonarium, as well as interesting information about bison.
The creation of this nursery was the first step towards the revival of native fauna for these places."
UK
Wilder Blean "Wildwood Trust and Kent Wildlife Trust are launching a flagship wilding project, ‘Wilder Blean’ in Blean woods near Canterbury. The project will promote stronger habitats by restoring natural processes that are able to withstand the current environmental crisis and species decline, and in the long run, reverse it.
In the UK, lack of woodland management is one of the eight biggest drivers of species decline. Wilder Blean aims to bring transformational change through a controlled trial with bison; a missing keystone species that is able to naturally manage woodlands."
North America
American Bison Society "Join more than one million wildlife lovers working to save the Earth's most treasured and threatened species."
Canada
Elk Island National Park "Experience the rolling hills, glassy lakes, and star-filled skies of Elk Island National Park, a UNESCO designated Biosphere Reserve just 35 minutes east of Edmonton. Look for herds of bison, elk or one of more than 250 bird species that call this special place home."
Wildlife Conservation Society Canada "Since 1905, WCS has been part of efforts to rescue bison from extinction through the American Bison Society, shipping bison from New York’s Bronx Zoo to the west to restore four populations. Thanks to these and other bison reintroductions, there are now about 2,200 plains bison and about 11,000 wood bison roaming wild in Canada. However, these still small numbers mean populations remain vulnerable to habitat loss, disease and with domesticated bison that have cattle genes.
One of the biggest factors limiting further recovery of bison is the loss of grasslands across the west grasslands are now one of Canada most endangered habitats."
"Our goal is to continue to reintroduce bison to wild areas, and to work with First Nations to restore the central cultural role that bison have played for centuries for Indigenous people."
Mexico
Reserva de la Biosfera Janos "The biosphere reserve encompasses plains, mountains, and poplar forests inhabited by black bears, deer, bighorn sheep, and pumas, plus a sizeable colony of prairie dogs. Moreover, Janos shelters the only wild bison herd left in Mexico. The reserve is also the winter home of grassland bird species and thick-billed parrots, an endemic species.
While the reserve restricts access, you can visit with a previous reservation or even stay overnight. And, if you are interested, you can help out with current research projects." Más en español aquí.Reserva Natural El Carmen "is a privately managed nature preserve south of Big Bend National Park, in Northern Coahuila, Mexico. It covers over 400,000 acres, with a mixture of high grasslands, rugged canyons and lofty peaks up to 9,000 feet in elevation. This amazing location is home to black bear, elk, pronghorn, desert bighorn sheep, mule and white-tailed deer. In November 2019, a herd of 19 American Bison was reintroduced to restored native grassland within La Reserva." Más en español aquí.
USA
Intertribal Buffalo Council (ITBC) "is a collection of 69 federally recognized Tribes from 19 different states whose mission is to restore buffalo to Indian Country in order to preserve our historical, cultural, traditional, and spiritual relationship for future generations. To reestablish healthy buffalo populations on Tribal lands is to reestablish hope for Indian people. By returning the buffalo to Tribal lands will help heal the land, the animal, and the spirit of the Indian people." Click here to learn about the technical services they offer to member tribes.
At present the Rosebud Sioux Reservation in South Dakota has the largest Native American-managed herd of Bison.
Alaska
Alaska Wildlife Conservation Center: Wood Bison Restoration Program reintroduces previously-believed extinct wood bison into the U.S.
Wood Bison Restoration in Alaska: Status of the Herd Updates includes photos, population charts, and maps from the Alaska Department of Fish and Game.
Montana
American Prairie "is creating the largest nature reserve in the contiguous United States."
National Wildlife Federation want to bring bison back to the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge
South Dakota
The Rosebud Sioux Reservation in South Dakota has the largest Native American-managed herd of Bison.
Texas
Texas Tribal Buffalo Project (TTBP) "is a non-profit dedicated to the developing relationship of our relatives the Iyanee’/ Buffalo and reconnection and healing of generational trauma of the Lipan Apache and other indigenous communities and tribes in Texas. The American Bison that once ruled the southern plains and provided Native Americans living in Texas with food, homes, clothing, medicine, tools, and many other essentials of living, reached near extinction near the end of the 19th century. Recently, the Bison have experienced a comeback. TTBP provides a resurgence of native life that promotes the health and vitality of the land and the people who utilize the meat and other valuable products of the Bison."
"This project is an indigenous women-led movement, aiming to reclaim the ancestral remains, spirituality, culture, knowledge, and resources of Texas Indigenous communities. TTBP is re-establishing the traditional homeland of the Lipan Apache and other indigenous nations while preserving the home range of the Southern Plains Bison. Conserving the wildlife of Texas will also strengthen and reclaim the indigenous connection to the lands and traditional knowledge. There are ~4,500 Lipan Apache people in Texas (lipanapache.org)."
Maps
Eurasia
North America
Bison Bellows: Back Home on the Range (The U.S. National Park Service) If the image and key are too small on your PC screen, try holding down the [Ctrl] button and scrolling with your mouse to resize.
Great Bison Belt "Original distribution of plains bison and wood bison in North America. Holocene bison (Bison occidentalis) is an earlier form at the origin of plains bison and wood bison."
Tools & Resources
Apps
Aplikacja mobilna Obserwator Żubrów "Celem aplikacji stworzonej przez Stowarzyszenie Miłośników Żubrów jest umożliwienie wszystkim zainteresowanym dodawania własnych obserwacji żubrów do ogólnodostępnej bazy danych. Aplikacja umożliwia dodanie zdjęcia oraz lokalizacji obserwacji, a także przekazania szczegółowych informacji dotyczących zaobserwowanych osobników. W celu dodania obserwacji oraz podejrzenia obserwacji innych osób z danego terenu, użytkownik musi zarejestrować się w bazie. Oceniane obserwacje, które zweryfikowano jako wiarygodne i niepowtarzalne będą brane pod uwagę w corocznych inwentaryzacjach gatunku. Dzięki temu każda zaangażowana osoba będzie miała możliwość przyczynienia się do monitoringu żubrów, prowadzonego na terenie całej Polski."
"Download our application and watch European bison in the forests of Poland."
Agreements & Protections
Grants & Funding
International
Mossy Earth This organization has a variety of tree-planting programs, but also assists with and helps fund rewilding projects in Africa, Europe, and the USA.
North America
USA
Intertribal Buffalo Council Member Grant Info & Updates This is for tribal communities and buffalo programs.
Ecosystem Connections
All bison have a protruding shoulder hump. Large shoulder and neck muscles allow bison to swing their heads from side-to-side to clear snow from foraging patches, unlike other ungulates that scrape snow away with their front feet. Bison are agile, strong swimmers, and can run 35 miles per hour (55 kph). They can jump over objects about 5 feet (1.5 m) high and have excellent hearing, vision, and sense of smell.
Diet
Yellowstone bison feed primarily on grasses, sedges, and other grass-like plants (more than 90% of their diets) in open grassland and meadow communities throughout the year.
They also eat forbs (weeds and herbaceous, broad-leafed plants) and browse (the leaves, stems, and twigs of woody plants) through the year, but those usually comprise less than 5% of the diet.
Cattle vs Bison
Biodiversity
Bison
In addition, bison grazing increases animal diversity. Herds of grazing bison shape grasslands and create habitat. Prairie Dog foraging capabilities are enhanced. In turn, these Prairie Dogs are prey for ferrets, foxes, hawks, and eagles. Prairie Dog tunnels are homes for the Burrowing Owl, small mammals, and reptiles.
Cattle
Cattle ranchers routinely remove plant species that might poison cattle, including milkweed which can be dangerous if eaten in high enough quantities. They also kill off prairie dogs out of fears that cattle will break their legs if they step in a hole. In countries like the USA, ranchers and the UDSA shoot or leave traps for animals like coyotes, though the traps often take out other animals including species who are endangered.
Carbon Capture
Bison
Dynamic spatial and seasonal bison grazing with the ongoing presence of forbs enhances density and plant cover above ground as well as gas exchange below ground. With parts of the prairie grazed, photosynthesis rates are enhanced because more light is made available.
Cattle
According to this page about carbon sequestration, it doesn't appear to be possibly for cattle ranchers to sequester anywhere near as much carbon as unaltered ecosystems would be able to store, especially when compared to the massive emissions created by the beef industry vs any other food we've found for comparison.
Forests & Deforestation
Bison
Bison have lived among trees and forests since before humans started interfering and destroying forests for easier hunting or grazing livestock. Despite their name Wood bison (and their European cousins the Caucasian Bison) who are commonly associated with forests tend to graze on plants such as grasses, and use meadows for birthing, shelter, mating and other purposes. The move in and out of different habitats taking seeds with them, which boosts biodiversity in the biomes, including forests.
"Bison affect habitats directly by grazing, trampling, defecating, urinating, making trails, wallowing, horning and rubbing on trees and other objects."
In a 2 year study of a herd over 300 large found that, "Bison injury to trees was minimal, although one willow (Salix nigra) was uprooted and killed during the study, and several other trees were seriously damaged. Bison horning had the greatest effect on saplings and shrubs, killing or severely damaging 4% of the woody plants documented within the study area and causing moderate injury to 13% and light injury to 12%. Bison showed a strong preference for small willows, killing or severely damaging 17% of the saplings and shrubs of this species during the study. Bison also used artificial, man-made objects present on the landscape such as utility poles and fenceposts. Results suggest that horning and rubbing by bison, along with fire and drought, may have influenced the historical distribution of woody vegetation in prairie environments. "
In Spain, reintroduced bison have helped open the underbrush to allow more light and grass species, eating damaged saplings, but leaving the healthier ones alone to flourish. Their work is expected to help reduce the increase of raging fires that have swept Spain as climate change and land use changes in the Spanish countryside.
Wallowing can create prime growing spots for young trees as the depressions tend to hold water long enough for it to sink in around roots, even in hotter, drier terrain.
Cattle
Cattle ranching is the #1 global driver of deforestation, and is responsible for 5 times more deforestation than any other industry. The second largest driver is soy, which is mostly fed to livestock, particularly Chickens, Aquaculture farms, Pigs, and Cattle.
Grassfed cattle are worse for forests (and the environment in general) than factory farmed or lot fed, since they require much more room to feed, particularly in places like South America where the rainforest's poor soil quickly runs out of nutrients, meaning cattle in the Amazon have among the world's lowest stocking densities. Then as nutrients run out, farmers cut and burn deeper into the forest for more grazing space, which downgrades to soy plantations till the soil is spent. Farmers essentially spreading desertification as they go.
Even worse is that even if farmers try to grow trees to reduce their impact, and protect their cattle from the elements, cattle have a habit of browsing on young trees, meaning fences are required for any new plantings. Cattle also kill adult trees by rubbing against them and damaging their bark or limbs. When a herd of cattle routinely shade themselves under a large tree, their feces and urine can build up in the soil, which is why so few livestock fields have trees, or often have dead trees.
Click the button below to learn more about Livestock and their effect on deforestation.