Narrator: Listen to a conversation between a student and a worker in a university office.     Office worker: Yes, how can I help you?    Student: Uh, well, I need to get a temporary permit. I've lost my parking permit. As I was parking my car just now, a parking meter guy came up to me and pointed out that my car had no permit displayed.    Office worker: Oh, so you had one. Which was it, a hangtag or windshield decal?    Student: A hangtag. I've never removed it from the rearview mirror, but somehow I've lost it. It's gone. I can't find it. When the guy said I have to buy a permit, I was a little miffed, I was a little miffed because I paid a lot of money already for it. What a bummer!     Office worker: Relax. If you registered for a permit this spring, it will be valid until the fall. So I should be able to find your registration and issue a replacement. Show me your ID, please.Student: Phew! That's good. I mean, it was recently expensive, like, you know, way expensive. Here you go.     Officer worker: Yeah, I know. You're lucky if you have one, though. It's getting more and more difficult to get assigned to a space.     Student: That's right. I notice that. But what I really don't get is why I can't park my car right outside my dorm. I mean, I pay for my dorm room. Don't you think parking should come with it? Instead, I had to pay close to $200 for parking.    Office worker: Um, but, you see, that includes parking other places on campus, too. Still, I know what you mean. But it's unrealistic to assume that you will be able to park right outside your dorm or building.  A campus size of this university makes it necessary for us to manage the transportations of everybody, you know?Student: Well, that makes sense, I suppose. But the thing is, you know, the parking-lot assignment can sometimes be really ridiculous. I park my car in the dorm lot next door and the guys in that dorm park in front of my room!Office worker: Well, um, that kind of thing may happen once in a while. But, permits are distributed based on a priority system that takes into account factors like cumulative course hours for students, and years of service for employees. And, on top of that, a permit holder is expected to ride the campus transit but or walk from the assigned lot to wherever he's going on campus, you know. You're not supposed to be able to drive to your destinations, door to door, so to speak. See what I mean?Student: Uh, huh. ...Well...Office worker: What the University Parking Services Department has been trying to do all these years is to cut down, un, ...is to limit the amount of vechiles parking on campus. Student: Now that you mentioned it, traffic both on campus and in town is terrible.Office worker: See? We are trying to reduce traffic on campus. Less traffic means that we can have a more pedestrian friendly campus and protect and enhance trees, green space and whatnot. For that matter, since our campus transit system is connected with the city transit service, we are cutting down on traffic in town, as well. We're constantly improving -- uh, working on improving -- campus transit service so that it runs more efficiently and conveniently for passengers.Student: Okay. I've got it. Well, if you could pull my resigstration out, I'd like to get going. My class's starting in half an hour. Office worker: Let's see... Oh, yeah. Here's your registration... Okay. Now, you'll receive your replacement permit in the mail in two to three days. The number on it will be different from the old one, which will be invalid as of today. That's just so that nobody else can use it. In the meantime, you still have to have a permit to park on campus. No parking without a permit, you know. But we can issue you a complimentary permit that will be valid until Sunday. Student: You mean a temporary one? For free?Office worker: Yes and yes. If you please sign here, you'll be all set. Have a good day!Student: Thanks. You, too.




Narrator: Listen as a professor leads a discussion in a biology class on muscles, bones and joints.Professor: Good afternoon. Well, as we talked about last Thursday, movement is a major characterristic of animals. This movement is a result of the contraction of muscles and the skeleton helps transmit that movement. Today, I'd like to discuss our body's muscles, bones, and joints in more detail.        As you can see in the illustration in Chapter 4 in the textbook, under the skin, human bodies are covered with a lot of muscles. Under these muscles, we have bones of many shapes and sizes. These bones are connected with jonits, which are also of several different types.         Now, let's start with muscles. We can group muscles into three types. Can anyone name these three types? Yes...?Female student: Um, yes... there are three main types of muscles in our body. Umm... one is skeletal muscle. The second type is smooth muscle. And the third is the specialized muscle tissue of the heart, called cardiac muscle.Professor: Very good, Betty. The first type of muscle is called by another name, too. What is it? And why? Anyone? Male student 1: Umm... Skeletal muscle is also called voluntary muscle, uh, because it can be consciously controlled. I mean... we can move it when we want to.Professor: Excellent. Then, how many skeletal muscles in the human body? ...John?Male student 2: Ah... let's see...um, about 300? But the number can change, though, can't it? I mean... say, by exercising and stuff. Professor: Uh-uh. And, with that few, you're missing half of our body. Anyone else? Female student: Uh, it has about 600 skeletal muscles, I believe.Professor: Actually, there are approximately 650 skeletal muscles in the human body, which differ in size and shape according to the jobs they do. Also, contrary to popular belief, the number of these muscles cannot be increased through exercise; the muscle can only get bigger, not more numerous. Well, these skeletal muscles are attached either directly to bones, or indirecly, that is via tendons. Okay, how about their movement? George, can you explain how they work?Male student 1: Certainly. They work in, uh, opposing pairs; one muscle in the pair contracts while the other relaxes. Professor: Yes, that's right. Controlled movements of the limbs indeed relies on coordinated relaxation and contraction of opposing muscles. For exmaple, to raise the forearm, the biceps, a two-rooted muscle, contracts and shortens while the triceps, a three-rooted muscle, relaxes. And the reverse occurs when the forearm is lowered. This intricate coordination produces body movements as diverse as walking, playing tennis, threading a needle, you name it. And, of course, a whole array of our facial expressions, too. Okay. Then, you may guess by now what the name for the other two types of muscles is. ...Yes?Male student 1: The second and third types of muscles are both called "involuntary" because they are not under "voluntary" control. What that means is we can't move them at will.Professor: Good. Smooth muscles, the second type, occur in the walls of internal body organs and perform actions such as forcing food through the intestines, contracting the womb in childbirth, and pumping blood through the blood vessels. Of course, cardiac muscle can't be voluntary, either. Okay?        Then, let's move on to bones and joints. Bones: They from the body's hard, strong, um, skeletal framework. Does anyone know what bones are chiefly composed of? ...Yes?Female student: Well, um, bones are composed chiefly of calcim, phoshorus, and, let's see, a fibrous substance known as, um... collagen.Professor: Excellent! And bones meet at joints. These joints are also of several different types. Can someone name any example of them?Male student 2: The hip is a ball-and-socket joint that allows the femur, or thighbone, a wide range of movement. Finger joints, on the other hand, are simple hinge joints that allow only bending and straightening, but not rotating. That would be weird if they did, though. Anyway, these are some examples. Professor: Precisely. As you can see in the diagram on page 178, joints are held in place by bands of tissue called ligaments. Movement of joints is facilitated by the smooth hyaline, or glass-like, cartilage that covers the bone ends and by the special membrane that lines and lubricates the joint. I'm quite pleased that you prepared very well for the class today. Keep at it! We've covered the material quite thoroughly. If you don't have any questions, that's all for today. ...Okay, I'll see you all again Thursday. Oh, don't forget the reading assignment for next class, everyone.

CD 1-20Wife: Did you find the Snow White detergent?Husband: Oops! I got the wrong kind. Well, how about a cheaper version of that? Ta-da! Thrifty White detergent!Wife: Oh, man! That's the worst kind of all. Why can't you listen to me?Husband: Now, now. Don't be so huffy over a mere detergent. You look terrible when you're angry.Wife: Oh for... You don't get it, do you? I'm disappointed in you, not in the detergent you couldn't buy!Husband: Don't yell at me.Wife: Leave me alone!Husband: Oh, boy. Now what do I do?

CD 1-34RegistrationMan: Hi, Jane! I've just finished registration.Woman: How many courses are you taking this semester?Man: Altogether four courses. I signed up for Advanced Spanish, South American History, Mexican Art and Culture, and Programming 1. Woman: Why Computer Programming 1? I thought you were a history major. Man: Well, yes, I am. But I'm very interested in computers, too. My parents gave me their old computer three month ago. I'm just beginning to learn some of the basic programs. It's  fascinating. Won't hurt to have more credits even though the course is only three credit hours.Woman: I know it's no Mickey Mouse course! I took the course last semester. I barely made it. I got a C. I've been using a computer for the last two or three years for word-processing. But when it comes to programming, it's just ove my head. But then again, you can use it without knowing how it works, just like driving. I even use a laptop computer in class sometimes.Man: Still, just as knowing how an automobile works makes you a better driver, knowing something about programming makes you better at using a computer. Neverthelesss, I'm a little anxious about the course.Woman: I understand. But you'll do fine! In any case, you can drop it if you find it too difficult. Well, good luck on the course.

Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture on the Dreyfus Affair in a history class.Professor (male) : We've finished talking about the defeat of France by Prussia in 1871 and the Paris Commune. And we've already heard that political balance within the former nation began to fall apart after 1871 and that the death of Leon Gambetta in 1882 killed any chance for real political consensus in the country. And now we will move on to the so-called Dreyfus affair, which ilustrates how far political polarization had gone in the country.        On October 15th in 1894 Alfred Dreyfus, a captain on the French general staff, was placed under arrest for high treason. After some weeks Dreyfus was found guilty at a secret military trial full of legal irregularities. And, uh, a few days later, on January 5th, 1895, he was deprived of his rank and sent for life to Devil's Island, in French Guiana. The conviction was based primarily on documents found in the waste-paper basket of a German military attache.         The acrimony aroused by the case was to a large extent due to anti-Semitism, which was often related to Catholic, reactionary, and anti-Republican feelings. A Republican and a Jew, Dreyfus had been an outsider among the aristocratic, Catholic, and monarchist officers of the French general staff; therefore, his fellow officers were easily convinced to inciriminate him. Naturally, as their reasoning went, if there was a traitor among them, it could only be Dreyfus! So, even though his family... oh, by the way, he came from a wealthy Alsatian family...um, in any case, even though his family, especially his brother Mathieu, made every effort to obtain a new trail and some journalists came to Dreyfus's defense, for a long while no one could make any headway.         Well, in the following year, the counterintelligence section of the French general staff received a new chief, Colonel George Picquart. This Colonel Picquart, a whistle-blower in the intelligence service, noticed that the removal of Dreyfus had not ended the leakage of military secrets. He also became aware that the handwriting on the incriminating documents wa similar to that of another member of the general staff, Count Esterhazy. On top of that, Esterhazy happened to be in continual financial difficulities. The plot thickenes, doesn't it? Um, as we will see, Picquart is the real hero of our story here. Well, when Picquart insisted on proceeding against Esterhazy, nobody on the general staff was willing to listen to him and he was summarily transferred from Paris to Tunis in AFRICA! But before leaving Paris, he confidentially informed several people of Esterhazy, including the vice president of the Senate.        Shortly thereafter, two sides emerged on the issue: the pro- and the anti-Dreyfus. The pro-Dreyfus, called Dryusards, were Jewish, Protestant, anti-clericals, and liberals, and among them were the novelists Anatole France, Emile Zola, and Georges Clemenceau, the liberal politician, journalist and later premier. Interestingly enough, the Socialist leaders were reluctant supporters of Dreyfus because the Socialist leaders doubted that their adherents, the workers, percieved a connection between their own interests and the cause of a wealthly Jewish officer. On this other side were the anti-Dreyfusards -- Catholics, monarchists and many anti-Semities, veterans of 1871, frustrated nationalists and many rural elements. Of course, there was money involved in the whole thing, too, as you many suspect. In particular, what further fueled the hostility was the 1885 failure of a Roman Catholic banking firm, for which its Jewish rivals, including Rothschilds, with their superior resources and shrewdness, were blamed.        In order to quell once and for all the agitation for Dreyfus, the French army ordered a trial of Esterhazy, and, lo and behold, he was acquitted. And, here is our hero again. Picquart, one of the witnesses against Esterhazy, was arrested and imprisoned. But rest assured, not all in vain. This whole arbitrary procedure provoked one of the great political documents of modern times -- J'accuse, which means "I Accuse!" In this open letter, addressed to the president of the republic, published in 1898 in Clemenceau's newspaper, Emile Zola stated the case against the army leaders briefly and succinctly. He singled our the responsible officers by name and devoted to each one of them a single paragraph beginning "J' accuse." Rightly expecting that he, too, would be condemned, Zola fled to London, where he continued to fight.        Under these circumstances the highest court of appeals set aside the previous condemnation of Dreyfus and a new trial was set. On June 22, 1899, however, the new trial culminated in a bizarre verdict that confirm Dreyfus's guilt but, at the same time, pardoned him by conceding him "extenuating circumstances." Still, in September of that year, Dreyfus accpeted a pardon from the president of France. This brought his immediate release, although it implied a tacit admission of guilt. As a matter of fact, it took seven more years, until 1906, before Dreyfus was finally exonerated of the charges and readmitted into the army. Incidentally, afterward he fought at the Western Front during World War 2.         All this is a thing of the past? Hardly. The factions in the Dreyfus affair remained in place for decades in its aftermath. As a result of the affair, the political right acquired an ideology and the left received a new sense of direction. The liberal victory played an important role in prompting liberal legislation such as a 1905 enactment separeting church and state. The anit-Dreyfusards have, on the other hand, remained a potent coalition and endured to the present time, as well. Even now, his statues and monuments are occasionally vandalized by far-right activists.        Most importantly, the Dreyfus affair was symbolic of a whole series of unanswered questions in French society. Republic or monarchy? Catholic or secular? Liberal or authoritarian? These issues remained unsolved not just during World War 1, but also during World War 2, when, under Nazi auspices, the ghost of the anti-Dreyfusard movement was raised from the dead and placed in power. What is this resurrected ghost? Anyone? Yes...Student: Um, the Vichy government?Professor: Uh huh. Precisely. As you all must know from reading James Hall's articles, this week's reading assignment, the right-wing Vichy regime was composed mostly of old anti-Dreyfusards or their descendants. The more things change, the more they remain the same, as the French writer Alphonse Karr said. Well, that's why we're doing what we're doing here after all, isn't it, folks? Well, this is as good as any point to sugue into British reactions to this whole incidence. Before we wrap up for today, I'd like to touch on the affair's influence across the Channel.

CD 1-47Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in a zoology class.Professor (male): What do you think makes the owls such a good nocturnal hunter? Well, visualize it in the woods at night. The first thing you notice about it is its large round eyes. Those eyes are all so constantly vigilant from its perch on a tree. The secret of the owl's ability to hunt lies in its good night vision, which, in turn, lies in the size and construction of its eyes. In fact, its superb nocturnal vision involves two quite separate capabilities: the ability to discriminate fine details of the objects within the visual field, and the ability to perceive small quantities of light. Therefore, the owl's eyes are not simply giant versions of those o its day-living cousins, as you might suppose.          During the daytime, there is plenty of light, and so the eyes of diurnal animals like gray, squirrels, mormots, most birds, and humans, have relatively small "windows" -- the cornea. Now, the amount of detail capable of resolution by the eye will obiously increase with the size of the image. In diurnal species of animials, the eye's lens tends to be flat with a long focal length, which means that a comparatively large image is brought to a focus on the retina way back from the lens. However, the larger an image gets, the dimmer it becomes, too. But, because of the high-intensity of light that enters through the pupil, the consequent loss of brightness of the large image doesn't matter; um, what this means is it will still be bright enough to register on the retina.         In contrast, one of the first essentials for an eye that has to operate by night is that it must be able to collect and concentrate as much light as possible. The eyes of owl's are large, but size alone is not enough. Obviously, the design must differ from those of diurnal animals. One of the most striking features of an owl's eye is the relative size of the "window." In photographers' jargon, nocturnal eyes are "fast"; that is to say, size for size, they are capable of letting in far more light than diurnal ones. In practical terms, a "fast" lens is wider than a slow one. When there is not enough light for the slow lens to operate, the fast one can still collect enough to throw a bright image onto the film. The same analogy can be drawn between the eyes of owls and day birds.        Now let's take a look at Figure 1 and compare the vertical sections of the eye of a diurnal species of bird and of an owl's eye. Since an owl's eye has a large cornea, the system would tend to throw a large image a long way back, just like in a daytime hunter's eye, with a comparable loss of brightness. At the same time, however, rounder and more powerful lenses bring the much brighter image back closer to the lens. In a word, their eyes give owls high resultion, with which they can see details of things even in the dark. The optics of their system, together with the fact that they have highly sensitive retinas, makes owls very well equipped to probe the darkest nooks by night. Well, um, this is why we can only stumble and grope in the dark, while owls are capable of an extraordinary feat of waving, er... weaving in and out of the trees at night with no trouble at all.        There is another conspicuous difference between our eyes and owls'. Unlike the eyes of mammals, the eyes of these birds are reinforced by bony structures that bind the cornea in the tough outer layer of the eyeball. And these are fuesd to the skull. That's why owls cannot move their eyes inside the eye sockets and we can. They cannot "roll" or move their eyes -- that is, they can only look straight ahead! But their head can turn a considerable angle to accomplish the same purpose. Because the owl's eyes are separated by a siginificant distance, they also have good stereovision and depth perception.         One last thing is, it's a popular misconception that owls are blind by day. After all, some species hunt by day and clincher is, eagle owls have been found to possess vision more acute than ours by day. Nevertheless, the relatively enormous tubular eyes of these birds are highly sensitive pieces of equipment, turned for nightlife. So they must be protected against the glare of daylight. Now in this function, their muscular irises play an improtant role.

CD 1-57GradingMan: Did you catch what Prof. Russell said about the grading system?Woman: Yes, I think so. It's quite simple.Man: I came in late so only got the last part of his explanation. Can you tell me exactly what's going on?Woman: Well, besides the midterm and final exam, we will be required to submit three short papers and one long one. Our grade is equally divided among the two exams, the short papers, and the long paper. I mean those three short papers are altogether a quarter of our workload and grade.Man: Did he say anything about attendance? I've already missed two classes so far. Did he call the roll today?Woman: No. He said attendance is not part of our grade. He will be there, so we should be, too. Attendance has nothing to do with your intellectual ability. Make sense to me.

Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in an architecture class.Professor (male): Today we'll talk about the Georgian period in American architecture. As you read in the textbook, widely used architectural labels such as "Georgian" and "Federal" are derived from historical periods, and they have, in turn, come to elicit fairly specific visual images. No doubt you'd soon be able to visualize and cite examples of those styles yourselves, too. In any case, um, that's why ...um, say, Hampton Plantation in Towson, Maryland, was not built while the Georges of England ruled the American colonies -- between 1714 and 1775 -- but nevertheless is classified as Georgian. Well, the image runs ahead of reality, uh, actually, behind reality, in this case, doesn't it?    Georgian style refer to a style originating in England in the 1600's based on forms following the classical principals of design developed by Andrea Palladio during the Italian Renaissance. In the mid 1600's, architects Indigo Jones and Christopher Wren began designing buidlings using Palladios' desing principals. This style became wildly popular in England, replacing the medival.    The Georgian period in American architecture began about 1700 with construction of the Wren Building at the College of William and Mary. It was named after its architect. Although old architectural history books extended this period in American architecture until 1830 -- the end of the reign of George Ⅳ, most scholars now agree that in America the style generally ran its course by the 1780s.  The eight-year hiatus of construction during the Revolutionary War essentially ended the Georgian period of architecture in irs original form. Later it would be renewed in revival styles. Thus, this is one of the longest-lived architectural styles in America. Well, many of the founders of the nation lived in handsome, capacious buildings along the eastern seaborad which were built in this style and the sites of historic events of the Revolutionary War that we can still visit were built in this style, too.    Another noteworthy thing about his styles is that, while earlier styles were disseminated among craftsmem through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system, Georgian architecture was spread among builders through the new medium of inexpensive collections of engravings, as well. Leoni's first English publication of Palladio's work between 1716 and 1720 and a host of other handbooks from England all influenced American building arts and increased the academic former, uh, excuse me, the academic formal quality of the Georgian style. And, eventually, from the mid-18th century, Georgian styles were assmilated into an architerctural parlance so that they became part and parcel of the training of every carpenter and plasterer, from Edinburgh to Maryland.     So, Georgian designs reached the American colonies in the form of architectural mannuals and pattern books by the mid 1700s when New England was enjoying its building boom. Wealth was accumulating along the Eastern seaboard. Wealthy captains, merchants, shipyard owners, and mill owners were developing new social classes. New standards of sophistication and elegance were being established. In the colonies, style now mattered. Many of those in the burgeoning wealthy classes visited England and looked to England for precedents of fashion and taste. And those they found. They were eager to have the new Georgian style home that displayed status, wealth and taste. So, Georgian style was all over the place, from Maine to Virginia in the British colonies. Just as Palladio in the 16th century had freely adapted Roman classical forms and Wren and his fellowers did heavily emulate the work of this Italian achitect, so did American builders borrow the English architectural style wholesale and with a vengeance!     This new style involved new concepts of living. The multiplication of rooms led to increaed specialization of rooms into separate rooms for sleeping, cooking, dining and so forth. Comfort, convenience and privacy were beginning to play a role in the colonies' lifestyle as they increased their wealth.     After the Revolution, Georgian convetions were slowly abandoned as a number of Revival styles, such as Gothic revival, enlarged the design repertoire. Another reason for this was its association with the colonial regime. Curiously, though, Pennsylvanians continued building Georgian houses until the 1860s, the time of the Civil War, while New Englanders abandoned the Georgian style for the most part before 1800. By the way, in Canada, Georgian architecture was embraced as a sign of Canadians' loyalty to Britain, and the style was dominant for most of the first half of the 19th century.    Okay, let's look at the distinctive features of the style. Georgian architecture is characterized by its sense of proportion and balance. Simple mathematical ratios were used to determine, for example, the height of a window in relation to its width or the shape of a room. "Regular" was a term of approval because it implies symmertry and adherence to classical rules. On the other hand, the lack of symmetry was felt to be a fatal flaw.  Regularity of house fronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning. Georgian designs usually include one or more of the orders of architecture and other elements derived from ancient Rome or Greece. Oh, what are orders? Yes. Student (female): Orders are formalized systems of proportions. And Ionic, Doric, and Corinthian are the major Greek classical orders.Professor: Yup. Now, look at Page 79. You can see these defining features of Georgian architecture: Renaissance-inspired rigid classical symmetry, axial entrances, geometrical proportions, and sash windows, in which the framing, the sash, holds panes of glass. You see what I mean? As you may also notice, a British Georgian building had a hipped roof sloping down on all four sides; an American one, side-gable roof. See?    Now, look at the drawings on Page 81 and look for the features of the most dominant influence in Georgian architecture: namely, Palladian. Well, the features of Palladian design were especially prevalent in the mid-Georgian period. Look at the those of the Virginia governor's palace in Williamsburg and Drayton Hall near Charleston, South Carolina. Do you spot the Palladian influence? These buildings are the epitomes of American Georgian architecture, and you can distinctly see the hand of Palladio in them: the large classical column and the two-story portico, which is a large porch, usually with a roof tha is supported by those classical columns.     And, of course, even now we often hear the term "Palladian window" -- a tall window with flanking two smaller rectangles and a arched top, which you can find on many, many buildings, most often on the second story, directly above the front entrance, from all the periods since then.    After almost a century of reviving European styles, late 19th-century American architects began to look to their own national past for appropriate models in their creation. Architects and builders revived and modified the styles to accomodate the more modern lifestyle and taste of the new century. That is to say, they created their Colonial Revival styles from the Georgian style. In their eagerness to ensure that the design heritage would be recognized, the architects often exaggerated their case. They also had to find ways to apply 18th-century details to buildings that were decidedly 19th-century size and function, such as railroad stations and public schools. To accomplish this, elements of the Georgian style were emphasized in various ways -- by changes of scale, by combinations of features used in ways unknown to the 18th century, or simply by repetition. It is such emphasis that helps distinguish the parent from child. So, even though we now have examples of original Georgian and Georgian "revival" homes and buildings to consider, you will be able to spot the original from the revival with enough time and practice.    Can we still find new buildings of this style? Certainly. Althought the Georgian Revival enjoyed its greatest popularity and most vigorous expression in the last decades of the 19th century and the first of the 20th, it is still pretty much a part of our architectural scene. Well, unfortunately, however, most modern examples suggest that the creative revival of the Georgian style is a thing of the past.



Narrator: Listen to a talk in a statistics class.Professor (male): I'd like to explain how the grading system for the course works. By the way the system is the one adopted by all the departments in the college. Its premise is that grades are a system of communication and, therefore, are worthless unless everyone uses them the same way. We issue transcripts so that employers and graduate schools will how well you, students, have performed.     Here's how people across the country will interpret the grades we give: A: The student did as well as could be expected.B: The student did as well as could be expected with some flaws.C: The student met the minimum requirements for the course.D: The student learned some of the material but did not meet minimum requirements.F: The student learned little or none of the material, that is, he failed.    There's no point in saying that the letters "ought" to mean something else -- for instnace, that C "ought" to mean "average." When you speak a language, you have to use it the way people use it. or they won't understand you.Female student: So, your grading system is universal and follows the standard of the country?Professor: Exactly. Uh, also grades measure results, not effort. You're not on Sesame Street any more, folks! It may sound charitable to "grade on effort," rewarding hard work with higher grades even in the absence of measurable results. This, however, won't work in practice. I have no way to measure how hard each of you work, do I? Mind you, despite recurring rumors, I'm not a god. Anyhow... Yes?Male student: Um, well, may I say something?Professor: Okay, shoot!Male student: You mean effort doesn't count at all? It seems to me kind of, um, unfair not taking into account differences in things like natural aptitude and learning styles.Professor: Sorry, but the university gives degrees for mastering course material, not for enduring drudgery, and grades are part of a degree. No matter how much you sweat in the process, it doesn't count unless you cross the finish line. Would you rather be operated on by a doctor who had an easy time in medical school, or by one who had a hard time and got his passing grade "on effort"? Grading on effort can conceal incompetence or, at best, send you into advanced courses for which you aren't prepared.Male student: When you put it that way, yeah, it makes sense.Professor: All right, then. Now that we are on the same page, there is one thing I'd like to mention. That is, grades are not numbers. We use numbers to make certain that grades given fairly, but the grade itself is a teacher's professional judgement of a student's mastery of the subject. It does no good to tell the world that you scored between 80 and 90 on my exam, unless I also tell the world exactly what is on the exam. Likewise, it makes little sense to issue arbitrary course descriptions that "B is 80 to 90." The University publishes course descriptions, not exams.Male student: But you'll give us the range of A's, B's and C's. Like top ten percent gets A's and bottom ten percent gets F's, or some like that. I think it is very precise and fair way of grading.Professor: Are you sure?Make student: Well, that's our high school teacher always told us. The fairest method of giving grades. And he gave us the range of scores for each letter, you know. Was he wrong? Professor: Oh, yeah, of course, I'll give you grade ranges. But not percentage. You're talking about two different things. There's no percentage in giving grades according to certain set raitos, as they say. You know why? Because students should be graded against course requirements, not against other students. Don't get me wrong, I'm sure a certain amount of competition among you guys is very healthy, but you shouldn't suffer because your fellow students do well, nor benefit because they do badly. Do you know where I'm coming from? A graduate school or employer will want to know whether your fellow students failed to do so. And so, to answer your question, yes, your high school teacher was wrong. Do you see that now?Male student: Completely.Professor: All right. Uh, this method of giving grades based on how a student's work compares with other students' is called "grading on a curve." You may have heard of it because a lot of IQ tests and other standardized tests use that. But what most non-statisticians don't realize is that "grading on a curve" works well only when the class is enormous -- with perhaps 1,000 students -- and, uh... only when the student performance is known to be constant over time. Alas, we are just mortals and our performance can fluctuate from year to year, or from day to day for that matter. So, in a class of around 50, like ours, random variation will surely invalidate any attempt to give A's, B's, and C's to fixed percentages of the class. Believe me -- I make a living being a statistician. And on top of that, grading on a curve allows students to sink to any depth as long as all students sink together. A scary thought, isn't it?     Oh, by the way, I refer all cases of suspected cheating to the Office of Judicial Programs. This may sound a bit heavy-handed, but it's the only way to make sure that the student gets a confidential investigation by experts followed by a fair hearing. Of course, if it's proven that he was indeed dishonest, he gets the F that he earned.Female professor: Fair enough.Professor: I wouldn't dream of being anything other than that!


Narrator: Listen to a part of a lecture in an astronomy class.Professor (male): Good afternoon, everybody. Today I'm gonna talk about our solar system and the Milky Way. Well, first, about the Solar System. As you well know it, it consists of a central star, the Sun, and the bodies that orbit it. Well, let me ask you guys: what are these bodies?Male student: Things orbiting the Sun include planets and their moons and asteroids and some comets, too.Professor: Yeah, if you add meteroids, the list of these bodies will be complete. This list used to include nine planets and their 61 moons, asteroids, comets, and meteroids. But jsut a month ago, on August 24, the International Astronomical Union passed a new definition of planet tha puts Pluto in a new category of "dwarf planet." So now we have 8 genuine planets and Pluto. Besides all of these, the Solar System contains interplantary gas and dust as well.    The planets in our solar system differ greatly from each other. For example, Mercury, the closest to the Sun, has a surface temperature of 400 degree Celsius, while on Neptune, on which winds blow up to 2,000 kilometers, or 1,200 miles, an hour -- uh, on Neptune, the mean cloud temperature reaches a low of minus 193 to 153 degrees Celsius. Pluto, now called "dwarf," which is 3.6 billion away from the Sun -- that is 40 times the distance between Earth and the Sun -- the temperature reaches a low of minus 230 degrees Celsius. Also, all of the planets, only five are visible to the unaided eye; to see Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto -- the farthest three -- a telescope is needed. The same is true for the rings of Saturn and for the asteroids, or "minor planets," that orbit around the Sun, especially between Mars and Jupiter, by the thousands.     The planets fall into two groups: four rocky, uh, four small rocky planets near the Sun -- Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars -- and four planets farther out, the so-called gas giants -- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Between the rocky planets and gas giants is the asteroids belt, which contains thousands of chunks of rock orbiting the Sun. And Pluto -- it's very small, solid, and icy and its status had been faltering, so to speak. Um, what I mean is ... er, well, you many have read in the newspaper or some science magazines that Pluto's small size, icy composition, and tilted, elliptical orbit have led some astronomers to debate its classification as a planet... Some always throught it was sort of, uh, out of it. Those scientists believed Pluto should be grouped with the asteroids or comets, er, because... The reason is because several other icy bodies have recently been found beyond the orbit of Neptune. Anyway, Pluto is the outermost planet of sort, except when it passes briefly inside Neptune's orbit.    Most of the bodies in the Solar System move around the Sun in elliptical orbits located in a thin disk around the Sun's equator. All the planets orbit the Sun in the same direction -- uh, counterclockwise when viewed from above -- and all but Venus, Uranus, and Pluto also spin around their axis in this direction. Moons also spin as they, in turn, orbit their planets. This entire Solar System orbits the center of our galaxy, the Milky Way, which is today's second topic.    The Milky Way is the name given to the faint band of light that stretches across the night sky. This light comes from stars and nubulae -- clouds of dust and gas -- in our galaxy, known either as the Milky Way Galaxy or simply as "the Galaxy." By the way, does anyone know how many stars there are in the Galaxy?Female student: A lot. Like several billion?Professor: You're right hat there're a lot. And nobody knows exactly how many, but the number of stars has been estimated be between 200,000,000,000 and 400,000,000,000. The Galaxy is shaped like a spiral, with a dense central "bulge" that is enriched by four "arms" spiraling outward and surrounded by a less dense "halo."    The Milky Way is actually the plane of the disk of our galaxy. Our Sun is one rahter, um faint, example of these zillions of stars that make up our galaxy. The Sun is in this disk about two-thirds of the way from its center to its edge. So, when, at night, we look along the plane of this disk we see the Milky Way, while looking in the other directions, that is, uh, out of the plane, we see far fewer stars.    Because our Solar Systemis in one of the spiral arms, the Orion Arm, from our position, the center of the Galaxy is completely obscured by dust clouds; as a result, optical maps give only a limited view of the Galaxy. However, a more complete picture can be obtained by studying radio, infrared, and other radiation.    According to radio and infrared observations eliciting the nuclear properties of the Galaxy, the Galaxy's central bulge is a relatively small, dense sphere that contains mainly older red and yellow stars. The halo is a less dense region in which the oldest stars are situated; some of these stars may be as old as the Galaxy itself! The spiral arms contain mainly hot, young, blue stars, as well as nebulae inside which stars are born. These young stars span an age range between a million and ten billion years. There is also growing evidence for a very massive black hole at the center of the bulge.    The Galaxy is vast -- about 100,000 light-years across. A light-year is about 5,879 billion miles. In comparison, the Solar System seems tiny, at about 12 light-hours across, which is still about whopping 8 billion miles! As a guide to the relative physical scale of the Milky Way, if the Galaxy were reduced to 1,000 miles in diameter, the solar system would be a mere 1 inch (2.54 cm) in width.    The entire Galaxy is also rotating around its center in space, although the inner stars travel faster than those further out. The Sun, which is, as I said, about two-thirds out from the Galaxy's center, completes one lap of the Galaxy about every 220 million years. Which means, it rotates at a speed of roughly 220 kilometers per second or 800,000 kilometers per hour!

    Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in a social science class.    Professor: Today, I'd like to talk about the Supreme Court decision on Roe v. Wade. In 1973, in the case of Roe v. Wade, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a woman's constitutional right to privacy includes the right to abort a fetus during the first trimester, that is, in the first three months of pregnancy, but also that beyond three months the fetus is "viable," which means it is able to continue to live, and the state, therefore, has responsibility for protecting it.    The case was first filed by Norma McCorvey, who sued the state of Texas for denying her the right to abortion. Well, the ruling, among the most controversial in the high court's history, barred the states from prohibiting abortion in the first trimester. The ruling gave rise to opposing movements, one to preserve woman's right to have abortions, and the other to limit or deny that right. As you know, the first is called "pro-choice"; the second, "pro-life" or "right-to-life."    The decision in Roe v. Wade promoted a decades-long, spirited, and sometimes frenzied national debate, mainly over three issues. First, the legality of terminating pregnancies. Second, the role of Supreme Court in constitutional adjudication. Third, the role of religious views in the political sphere. Thus, Roe v. Wade became one of the most politically significant Supreme Court decisions in history, and held profound moral and legal implications as well. The decision, consequently, reshape national politics, divided the nation, and inspired grassroots activism.     Did anyone watch the Senate confirmation hearings of Judge Alito? Okay, many of you did. Good. At one point the whole procedure turned quite confrontational. Do you remember? Even Alitos wife fled the hearing room in tears. What was the bone of contention?    Male Student 1: Um, Democratic Senators were criticizing him for giving incomplete and inconsistent answers the whole time.     Professor: Yeah, he certainly sounded evasive sometimes ...    Male Student 2: And, uh, Democratic Senators got exited over his comment ... What did he say? Something like "I would be willing to reverse," ...uh, "to revisit the ruling," I think. I mean, besides his hedging questions. He didn't really answer the will-he-or-won't-he question about the decision on Roe v. Wade.    Professor: Yes, that's more like it.    Female Student: But that's not all. He was accused of being a sexist, too. You remember? He's a member of an alumni group that wanted to restrict enrollment of women and minorities.      Professor: Well, there's a definite connection between these two issues, isn't there, Laura? Here, I think, the main source of contention was his comment to the effect that he might be willing to revisit the decision that legalized abortion nationwide. What this means is, he left the door open to reversing the decision.    As you witnessed in Judge Alito's case, the question of adherence to the decision has since been the liberals' so-called litmus test for Supreme Court nominees in the Senate confirmation hearings. Speaking generally, opposition to Roe came from those who view the court's decision as illegitimate for straying too far from the Constitution, and those who conceive of the fetus as an entire person. Support for Roe comes from those who women's rights and personal freedom, and those who believe in the primacy of individual over collective rights.    Let's turn the clock back and take a look at the debate's background history. Well, we tend to get easily bogged down by current affairs only and are unable to see the whole picture. I think it's very illuminating to see how abortion was regarded before it became a highly political issue. So here we go.    Since before the time of the American Revolution, the legal status of abortion has indeed gone through various changes. Under colonial and early American law, abortion was legal, provided that it was carried out before movements of the fetus could be felt -- which is, well, generally about midway through a pregnancy. In the 1830s, abortion was widespread as a method of birth control. If you check newspapers and magazines from this era, you will find that they routinely and matter-of-factly discussed the topic with their doctors. By the 1860s, doctors estimated that women had abortions at the rate of one for every four live births.     In the 1860s, however, the newly created American Medical Association began -- for professional, ethical, and hygienic reasons -- a campaign to outlaw abortions, except when deemed necessary by doctors themselves. Then, a wave of legislative reform followed. These new laws sent abortionists underground, but substantial numbers of women continued to have abortions throughout the nineteenth century and into the twentieth.     In the 1950s, the movement to repeal state laws banning abortions was begun in a context over the postwar "population explosion." Vehemently opposed to such liberalization were groups like the Roman Catholic Church and various fundamentalist and evangelical Protestants.    In this state of constant face-off, in 1973, a case was filed by Norma McCorvey. She sued the state of Texas for denying her right to an abortion. "Jane Roe," a standard alias for anonymous plaintiffs, was used to protect her identity. The Supreme Court ruled the case of Roe v. Wade in her favor, and all states were directed to lift their bans on abortions, though many resisted actually doing so. When the case reached the Supreme Court, few people expected the justices to overturn the Texas law. That was because the court had become increasingly conservative with the appointments by President Richard Nixon of Chief Justice Warren Burger and Justice Harry Blackmon, Lewis Powell, and William Rehnquist, and the retirement of Chief Justice Earl Warren, and the details of Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan 2 -- all judicial liberals.    Roe v. Wade, important in itself, also raised issues concerning the degree to which the federal government could judge, uh, the federal government could legislate the worst private and fundamental issues of life and death, um, including the question of when life begins. This is the question that has proved to be political dynamite, as we all know very well by now, and that is and will be debated by scientists, moralists, and theologians for many years to come. That's about the only thing agreed upon about the whole thing.
CD 3-41
Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in a psychology class.Professor: You know, when I was conducting a study on conflict management on campus, a lot of students filled out the questionnaire with responses like "Stop complaining, and just suck it up"; "What else can I do? I've just got to suck it up and push on through"; and the variation of "I've been trying to suck it up, but I don't think I can do it much longer. I'm ready to snap!"    All of these are also things I've heard frequently from college student who came in to talk about their issues with me at the counseling center. Most of them are engaged in latentt or manifest conflict with other students, university staff, or even faculty. Whether appraent or not, conflict has to be resolved. Interestingly, however, I haven't heard many students say they're gonna try to negotiate with the other party in those situation. Or I haven't heard them talk about seeking retaliation.    Take one case I dealt with, for instance. This was between roommates who share an apartment. Student A is working at cafeteria until 9:00 and she needs at least three hours each night to prepare for the next day's classes. On the other hand, Student B has to get up early Tuesdays and Thursdays because her seminar starts at 8. So she wants to go to bed early the nights before. The two talked and decided on a time to go to bed, but when I interviewed Student B three months later, somehow she was not happy with the arragement and even though she wouldn't go so far as to admit that. Obviously they aren't getting along well. Something's wrong. What has gone wrong between them? What could be the cause of her resentment> Oh, by the way, they decided to turn the light out at 11:30.    Student 1: People get weird on you over really trivial things. Everybody's got some episode like that. You never know, you know?    Student 2: Really, who doesn't?    Student 1: Um, what I'm saying is, it could be anything. But usually small matters you can ignore. So when an issue has blown up in her head like that -- after all, she went to talk to you, right? It must be something real serious.     Professor: That's good insight. In the article I assigned last week, Garry Thomas deals with the exact topic: Interpersonal conflict.    Garry Thomas maintains that conflict is a process consisting of four stages. Frustration, conceptualization, behavior and outcome. Its right stage can be either a satisfactory resolution or continued emotional distress, which our Student B is in right now.     The first stage of his process model of conflict is frustration. Frustration arises when we're not, so to speak, in sync with others. It occurs when we perceive that our goals, beliefs, or attitudes are inconsistent with those of another individual or group with which we have formed a social unit. In our example case, Student B has frustration, Evidently, Student A doesn't manifest any sign of it.     Well, the second stage is Conceptualization. Conceptualization is the cognitive evaluation of what one perceives as the cause of frustration. This means we consciously gauge whatever we see as its cause. Student B states that she feels frustrated over the arragement between herself and her roomate over their light-out time.    Studnet 1: Dr. Gonzales, isn't it hard to judge what's frustrating you? Especially, when you're really frustrated?    Professor: Yes, that's true. Judging could be near impossible since it require mental equilibrium, which can't be your state of mind when you're really frustrated or upset. And usually there is not just one issue but a series of possible explanation for a conflict. We will disuss this in more detail later.    The third stage of model is behavior. According to Thomas, when we choose behavior to handle a troublesome situation of this kind, we will be influced by three factors: egocentricity, a general insight into the entire situation, and the size of the issue.     The degree of egocentricity is very important because egocentricity causes one to define the issues only within one's concerns without recognizing the other party's. This makes cooperation as a means of resolution less likely. Putting yourself in someone else's shoes is not an easy thing to do.     When we talked with Student B, we found out from the student's records that her roomates has lost a scholarship last semester and is trying to get her grade up but that Student B didn't know that. Do you think this piece of information might have influenced her behavior or attitude toward her roommate if it had been available to her at the initial stage? If so, why?    Student 2: Naturally, she'd be more understanding, wouldn't she?    Professor: Why, Bruce?    Student 2: Uh, well, wouldn't anyone? It'd be obvious she needs to work hard and until late at night. Maybe she can't afford to cut down on her working hours, either, you know. So she should just give her a break, uh, rahter, more breaks, I mean.    Professor: You're precisely on point here. Seeing her roommate's predicament could change her perspective completely. As you can see, the person's general insight into the situation plays a big part. If a person has some general understanding about all the underlying concerns, the likelihood of reaching a resolution will increase. There are two sides to the coin, as always, though. Actually, Student B told us that she suggested they go to bed at 11:00, because she felt a need to concede some in the situation even though she actually wants to sleep by 10:30. But somehow she didn't make it known to her roommate that she started negotiations already having yielded 30 minutes, while her roommate assumed she wanted to turn the light off at 11:00. So by the time the negotiations were over, Student B had yielded one hour, while Studnet A had yielded 30 minutes. Neither of them knew where each other was coming from, really. If only they'd known how to go about negotiating and had told each other exactly what they wanted right off the bat!    Well, okay, the last factor, the size of the issue here means large issues require more forceful means of settlement. In other word, the bigger your conflict is, the more radical your course of action gets. This also leads to the observation that a big problem should be broken up into smaller parts that are more easily managed. You won't immediately talk to campus legal aid or an ombudsman to settle the unpleasant situation between roommates over sleeping arragements that I just mentioned, for instance.    Student 1: But, to me, talking to you at the counseling office already seems to be quite a big step... I'm not sure a lot of people feel comfortable about even doing that.    Professor: Yeah, I hear you... Um, but you shouldn't feel that way because it's confidential and all. Also how big an issue is depends on your perception of it. Needless to say, however, if you think it's serious and you can't solve it by yourself, then maybe something should be done at a level higher than that of individual efforts.     Well, Thomas next identifies actions taken to resolve conflict. The most frequent behavioral response was to suck it up, followed by positive confrontation. Sucking it up and distancing are the primary forms of manifested avoidance.     Student 2: You mean by "distancing," ignoring?    Professor: Mainly. And sometimes it can involve certain actions taken to keep away from the situaiton.     This bears out our suspicion all along; that is, people will readily disort their perception of an unfair or unjust situation if they don't think they can succeed with demands for compensation or retaliation, so that they can live with the sitaution. This may be occuring often with college students because they lack the experience to develop the skills to negotiate compensation, or the power to effect retaliation. This is what Student B tried to do.    Positive confrontation, the second behavioral strategy, shifts away from the use of retaliation or "just talking it." People will then attempt to work it out and negotiate an agreement. Positive confrantation involves both parties in breaking the status quo. Actually doing something about the issue.     Thomas reports that students do experiece a good degree of success in their negotiations, especially when they are prepped for a confrontation in advance. The key is their realization that destructive conflict does not necessarily have to perpetuate itself. In other word, knowing a solution may work exerts an influecne on behavioral response. Here's where informing students and developing their conflict managemet skills comes in.    Thomas's study provide many interesting insights into the conflict resolution behavior of students. Well, um, I thought the last one he cited -- their greatest failures with negotiation attempts are with teachers -- is especially intriguing.    Well, we certainly hope that Student B will learn negotiation and other conflict resolution skills so that she will be able to break through her present problem and get along better with her roommate, and avoid repeating mistakes in dealing with troublesome situations.    Student 2: She should say what she wants and when she wants it, to begin with.     Professor: And nicely, Bruce. 
3-14
Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in a physics class.Professor: Looking back on things now, it seems so simple, but it must have been hard to swallow the notion that motion is made up of two or more components in different directions. Back then it was by no means an easy concept even for scientists to accept. Imagine that! Obviously, dealing with this "combination of forces", many scientists experienced a mental block big time.    So when Copernicus first suggested that the earth moved around the sun, some of the most vehement objections came from those scientists. Their counter-argument to his was, um, if the earth rotated on its axis and moved through space revolving around the sun, it surely would be impossible for anything movable to remain fixed to the earth's surface. Jeez, if one leaped up in the air he would come down many yards away, since the earth beneath him would have moeved while he was in the air, you know.... Well, likewise, they had trouble believing that the moon was affected by the same force as the proverbial apple, simply because if the same force applied to both, the same acceleration would affect both and both should fall.    Well, Galileo showed this wasn't so by pointing out that an object dropped from the top of the mast of a moving ship feel to a point at the base of the mast. In other words, the falling object doesn't fall in the water even though, while moving downward, it must also have participated in the ship's horizontal motion. Actually, Galileo did not try this himself, but he proposed it as what is today called a "thought experiment." Even though it was proposed only in thought, it was utterly convincing. You see, ships had sailed the sea for thousands of years, and objects must have been dropped from mast-tops during all those years, yet no seaman had ever reported that the ship had moved out from under the falling object. Never.    Then, why did some scholars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries feel so sure that objects could not possess two different motions simultaneously? Apparently it was because they still possessed the Greek habit of reasoning. What this means is that they reasoned from what seemed valid basic assumptions and did not always feel it necessary to check their conclusions against the real universe. That's why I feel hesitant to call them scientists and rather refer to them as scholars.    For example, the scholars of the sixteenth century reasoned that a projectile fired from a cannon was potentially subject to motions resulting from two causes -- first, the impulse given it by the cannon, and secondly, its "natura motion" toward the ground. Assuming that an object could not possess two motions simultaneously, one motion would be completed before the second began. In other words, they deduced that the cannonball would travel in a straight line in whatever direction the cannon pointed, until the impulse of the explosion was used up and it would then at once fall downward in a straight line.    Galileo, on the other hand, argued that the projectile traveled onward in the direction in which it left the cannon's mouth. ...um, that is to say, Galileo abandoned Aristotelian notions about motion and was instead taking a totally new approach to the problem.    In one experiement he did conduct, Galileo demonstrated, by dropping bodies of different weights from the top of the famous Leaning Tower, tha the speed of fall of a heavy object is not proportional to its weight, as Aristotle had claimed. But his attacks on Aristotole made him unpopular with his colleagues, and in 1592 his contract as chair of mathematics at the University of Pisa was not renewed. What a drag! This seems to happen so often to trailblazers who challenge the authorities of their time, doesn't it?    Well, in any case, by 1609 he determined the law of falling bodies. As you may guess, what the law says completely contradicts Atistotelian physics. It states that the distance traveled by a falling body is directly proportional to the square of the time it takes to fall. For example, a stone falling for twice as long as another stone will travel four times the distance. Or, a ball falling for three seconds will travel nine times the distance traveled by a ball falling for one second.    On the basis of this law, Galileo reached the conclusion that bodies fall to the surface of the earth at a constant acceleration, and that the force of gravity, which is the cause of all bodies moving downward, is a constant force. In other words, um, a constant force does not lead to, um, constant speed but to constant acceleration. Well, in the period before him, people thought that force causes speed. That's what Aristotle believed. Instead, Galileo showed that force causes acceleration. This is also inseparable from this prinsiple of inertia that a body in motion will continue its motion so long as no factor disturbs that motion, which is, by the way, our topic next Thursday.    The law also states that the trajectory of a projectile is a "parabola." Um, which means that the object thrown follows the path of a curve called "parabola." That's why the law is sometimes called the law of parabolic fall. And he also showed that a cannonball would have the greatest range if the cannon were pointed upward at an angel of 45° to the ground, the validity of which, by the way, was repeatedly demonstrated in the battlefields in numerous subsequent wars.
CD 2-64
Beliefs and Words    Logic, the study of beliefs, is about consistency of beliefs. Since beliefs are not tangible, however, it is difficult to study them directly. So we study the words or sentences that are used to state them. But there are hazards in thie method of studying beliefs. First of all, a sentence may have two or more different meanings, which makes it ambiguous. Second, the same sentence may be used on different occasions to talk about different things. So a sentence, say "She is beautiful." could mean different things, or refer to different girls, from occasion to occasion. Third, people somtimes tell lies, in which case the meaning of a sentence intentionally differs from what the speaker believes.    When we want to convey our beliefs to other people, we usually put them into words, unless we have other alternative ways of presenting them, as artists do. Therefore, the study of belief is destined to rely on mediating language in spite of its limitations. How, then, can we surpass those limitations? The answer has been obvious to everybody, except philosophers, all along: we should not forget that language is only a mudium for communicating beliefs -- it is not the beliefs themselves. This naturally leads us to a more open-minded, and more "logical" approach to logic, taking human and circumstantial conditions into consideration for what our beliefs are and how they are related to each other. At the same time, this keeps us humble, with the realization that we must always endeavor to express ourselves clearly and concisely.

Narrator: Listen to a conversation in a liberary.    Student: Excuse me. Can you help me? I don't seem to be able to find the reserved material for the class.    Librarian: Certainly. What are you looking for?    Student: The reading assignment sheet says here that we have to read several items on the list by Monday. I found Environmental Connections. But I can't locate Man, Materials and Environment, Environmental Science or Environmental Administrative Decisions. They aren't at the locations they're supposed to be... Well, I've been hunting for them for over an hour, going through in-process stacks and all. I'm at my wit's end and a little put off, too!    Librarian: All right. You don't need to get yourself all worked up. We'll see what we can do. Okay, one at a time. What did you say? Man, Material...    Student: Man, Mateterials and Environment.    Librarian: Okay, I got it. Who is the author?    Student: It says here "National Research Council Study Committee on Environmental Aspects of a National Materials Policy." Quite a mouthful, isn't it?!    Librarian: Whoa, let me see that. ...Yeah, it's a federal agency. Well, the library catalog online shows that it's part of three volume series. Do you want all three? Or do you know which one you want?    Student: Uh, let me see. Well, at the end of the title is says "A Report to the National Commission on Materials Policy." Does that help?    Librarian: Yes, it's the first one you need. Two copies of this should be in the reserve shelf on the second floor.    Student: I looked. They're not there.    Librarian: Okay, in that case, the other copies are in the library repository. To read them you need to fill out a form. You can use our Material Request Form at the bottom of Title Display on the library site. Just type in your name and ID number.    Student: Will do. Okay. How about the second one -- Environmental Science?    Librarian: That's a bit too general a title. Is there a subtitle?    Student: Uh-uh.    Librarian: How about the author?    Student: Um, Larry J Williams, et al.    Librarian: Okay...Here it is. This is also a series put aside for reserve. There seems to be at least ten of them...    Student: Oh, yes as a matter of fact, I need to leaf through three of them in the series -- Environment and Economics, Environmental Health, and Environmental Cooperation -- Volume 3, 6, and 7.    Librarian: Well, we have Environmental Health and Environmental Cooperation but not Environmental and Economics.    Student: Aw, heck, why, uh... What I want to know is... How in the world is it possible to that the assigned reading material is not in the library?    Librarian: It could mean that someone is reading it right now or that it's in process. Um, what that means is, the material is being replaced. A worst-case senario would be that it's been placed in the wrong section. But we will cross the bridge when we come to it. So, okay, if someone is reading it now, you can rush your request. Also, anytime you need something that's in process you can rush your request, too. Just use our Rush Cataloging Form here. It will tell the staff, when they get hold of it, not to put the book back to the shelf and to call you right away. You want to do that?    Student: Um, well, I suppose I should go ahead with it. But, is there any other way to get hold of the book? I'd just as soon find the book, you know.    Librarian: Yeah. Well, you could always use interlibrary services. That's sort of the last resort. Uh, so before that, let's check to see if the Science or Law Library has what you need. They have seprate catalogs and sometimes own things the Main library doesn't.     Student: What are you saying? We can search books from here?    Librarian: Uh huh.    Student: Wow! I take it we can check out books from the other libraries on campus from here, too?    Librarian: Yes. You can also request to have books sent over here, or to have them held for you. Then, you still have to go there to pick them up, of course. But since sometimes it takes more than a day to send for books, play it safe and request to hold and go get them yourself. Uh... where was I?    Student: Uh, the Scienece and Law Libraries may have the books?    Librarian: Ah... Here you go. Oh, you lucked out. The Law library has one copy of Environmental Science, Volume 1 of Environmental Science. Okay so, you can use the terminal there to check it out and request to hold it until you get there. All right?    Student: Yeah, good.    Librarian: Okay, what's next?    Student: Environmental Adminitrative Decisions. This one seems like a government document. Its subtitle goes Decisions of the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Does the Law library have it?    Librarian: ...Hmm, uh-uh, no such luck. I don't see it either in our catalog or thoes of the other two libraries. Who's the auther again?    Student: Doesn't say. United States Environmental Protection Agency, maybe?    Librarian: Well, now, um, since we can't find any copy anywhere on campus, it's good time to try the catalog of the Center for Research Libraries. Since our university is a member of this cooperative institution, any material listed in their catalog can be ordered through interlibrary services with a longer than usual loan period. And they usually send out the stuff right away, you know, a day or so. This is a good place to start, especially when you need articles on microfilm, government documents, foreign language materials or other old or unusual items. Also, compared to other regular interlibrary loans, it's usually the quickest way to get what you want, provided that they have it. Since this one you need sounds like a government document, it may be well worth your while to place an interlibrary loan request. I'm saying this because you'll have to jump through some hoops to get started. First time around you will need to register, and you have to have a complete citation, and you have to fill out a separate form for each request. So it could be cumbersome and time-consuming. But you can download a request form from our website. If you don't have the full citation for the book, you can ask for assistance at the Reference Desk on the first floor. This may not be unusual but the publication year is 1982, which is not very old old enough. Uh, so all in all it's not a bad idea to try -- worth a try.    Student: It still may take longer than I like. I have to finish reading it by Monday.    Librarian: I know, I know. Still, take a shot at it, anyway. Better late than never, don't you think?    Student: Very well... I'll do that. I don't want all of your advise go to waste, anyway.    Librarian: Okay, here's the address of their site. You can log on with your ID number. Make sure that you enter your complete ID card barcode number and click on the start button and just follow the instructions on the screen. Okay? I'll let you to take it from here. In the meantime, I'll get you a Rush Cataloging Form.    Student: Thanks. If unsccessful, then I can find out exactly what you mean by the worst-case senario, right?    Librarian: Don't even go there! Good luck!    Student: Thank you very much.
1-11
Making an Appointment    Student: Professor Philips, I was hoping that I could come and talk with you.    Professor: Oh, okay...    Studnet: Well, I many need to ask for an extention on the lab report that is due in two weeks or an incomplete in this class. Can I make an appointment for some time this week?    Professor: Umm, the thing is I'm kind of booked up this week... From Wednesday to next Monday, I will be in Kansas CIty, attending an annual meeting of the American Biochemical Society. Let's see. Tomorrow I have classes until four in the afternoon, so after that it will be okay. But how about this afternoon? You don't wanna wait, do you? I have another class from noon. I'll be in office after 2, though.    Student: Oh, thank you. So, can I come by around 3?    Professor: Yes. Oh, another thing is you might need to talk to somebody in the administration office about the situation, so maybe you should come as early as possible. Then, you could have time to go to other offices if you needed.    Studnet: All right, then I'll be there at 2. Thank you for making time for me on such short notice.    Professor: No problem. See you this afternoon.
Narrator: Listen to a conversation between a university office worker and a student.    Office worker 1: Foreign Students Office. How may I help you?    Student: Oh, may I speak with Linda Gardner?    Office worker 1: Hold on a second. I'll see if she is in ...    Office worker 2: Hello.    Studnet: Oh, hi, Linda. This is Bob Barnes.    Office worker 2: Hi, Bob. How are you?    Student: Fine. How are you?    Office worker 2: Very good, thank you. It's been a while since we played last. What have you been up to today?    Student: Been keeping myself busy with school and work. The same old story, you know!    Office worker 2: Me too. I've been meaning to call you to set up a match after work. But the last couple of weeks they were running us all ragged at the office. This week, finally, we're able to see the daylight.    Student: Well, I can identify with that. But if you want a rematch of the last one to even it up for you, I'm game anytime. But seriously, Linda, the reason I called is I need to find a Spanish tutor yesterday! I remmebered that you work at the Foreign Students Office. I thought you might know somebody who speaks Spanish.    Office worker 2: Oh, yeah, as a matter of fact, I know a lot of Spanish speakers. What exactly do you have in mind, though? I mean, you need to learn speaking only, or grammer and everything?    Student: Actually, it would be good if I found somebody who could teach me the whole thing. The mid-term exam is coming in a week. I need somebody to go over the textbook with me and answer my questions. You know, Linda, memorizing vocabulary is hard enough, but I've really run into a stone wall with conjugations. But it is Spanish 101, the very basic course. So I suppose anybody who speaks Spanish will do.    Office worker 2: Well, don't jump to conclusions. Sometimes it is the hardest to teach the very basics. But don't worry. I know somebody just right for the job.    Student: Phew! I'm lucky. Another thing is I can't pay very much. Actually, I've tried to find a tutor through the Student Aid Office, because they are usually the cheapest way to go. But they said there is nobody available at present. So I'm all on my own and you know how well I'm paid the library!    Office worker 2: As a matter of fact, I don't think you need to pay anything. I can do the job. I used to teach Spanish in high school before I got married and moved here. Unless you want somebody else...    Student: Wow! That's great. Of course, I want you. But I didn't know that you were a teacher.    Office worker 2: Yeah. I spent two years roaming around in Spain, especially Barcelona, after graduation from college. After I came home, I taught five years in Bloomington before I married John.    Student: I'll take you up on your offer, but insist on paying you at least the rate for a campus tutor. I don't want to take advantage of you. I really appreciate it, Linda.    Office worker 2: Well, we can talk about that later. I'll see if we can use one of the conference rooms upstairs.    Studnet: You mean, we can meet there?    Office worker 2: Uh huh, I don't see why not. Most of them are usually empty by three or so. I can start any time; you say the word.    Student: Great. Do you think we can start tomorrow?    Office worker 2: Sure. Then, tomorrow it is. Just come by here after school and we'll start right away. We can dicusss an overdue tennis match afterward, too! Ha, ha!
3-28
A Conversation    Woman: Would like to play racket ball with me some time next week?    Man: Sounds good! Where do you want to play? In Hendrickson Center?    Woman: Is there anywhere else we can play? Actually, last time I played there, I had to make a reservation a week in advance. The courts and other facilities are all right, but not too great, and they charge $8 per person per hour.    Man: I know. I've been there a couple of times myself. There is another place near the football field. It's also university gym, but older than the Hendrickson Center. As a matter of fact, I like it better than the new one because it's almost always empty and the courts are well maintained and the shower room is decent. And most of all, it's much cheapter -- its hourtly rate is $5 per court.    Woman: Let's definitely play there. Do I need to make a reservation?    Man: Depends. Unless they have some special event going on there, we can just walk right in and play. Why don't I call and check it out?     Woman: Thanks. My schedule is quite flexible in the evening. After 5, almost any day is okay with me.     Man: All right! I'll call you and let you know tonight or tomorrow.

4-15
Hard Luck    Woman: You look down. What's happened?    Man: I was just in my advisor's office. He's told me that I can't graduate until next September.    Woman: What? Why's that? I thought you've been doing great all these days.    Man: Of course, I have. It's just that one physics course I need in order to graduate won't be offered next semester, so I have to wait until next spring to complete all the requirements.    Woman: That's ridiculous. The advisor didn't tell you that before? That's his duty, isn't it?    Man: Well, he said he didn't know that either. The professor who was supposed to teach the course was sick or something. He's checking if I can substitute some other physics course that will be offered next semester for it. Or else, I will be doomed.     Woman: If I were you, I would tell him that the department should hire a substitute. It's only fair.
CD 2-28
Study Abroad    Woman: What are you going to do this summer?    Man: I'm going to Europe on the Study Abroad Program.    Woman: That sounds great! Where in Europe are you going?    Man: Mainly to Germany and France, and at the end of the program we will have a month to travel around the rest of Europe.    Woman: Wow! When are you leaving?    Man: I'm leaving in the first week of June and coming back at the beginning of September. They'll pay for everything except traveling expenses. I need to save up enough money to last one month. Now I have to keep two part-time jobs until the day before I take off.    Woman: So, you've been studying German and French how many years?    Man: I started in my freshman year. Two years is not enough, I know. But these three months will be worth more than three years, I hope.    Woman: Well, I'm still struggling with my Russian. I don't think I'm ready to go over there yet, though.     Man: You never know. It may give you a great incentive to concentrate ever more on studying Russian. It works that way with me. I wasn't really working hard until I found out about the Study Abroad Program.     Woman: You gave me an idea. I may look into it. They may have a program for Russian students, too.    Man: Sure they do. I know a girl who went to Kiev on the program. I can give you her phone number, too, if you want.
p.451 
    Narrator: Listen to a conversation between a student and a university office worker.    Office worker: McCallum Center.     Student: Um, hi, I'd like to reserve a racquetball court.    Office worker: May I have your membership number, please?    Student: Is that the same as my student ID card number?    Office worker: Well, yes and no. You haven't registered here yet, have you? Have you been here?    Student: Uh, no. I haven't set foot in the Center yet. I didn't know that I needed to register either.     Office worker: Yes, you do. It's very simple, though. You just need to fill out a registration form and you can get a number to affix to your ID number.    Student: Well, can I do that on the phone?    Office worker: Sure, or you can do it online, either way. You want to go ahead and register now?    Student: Yeah, might as well. Oh, by the way, how much does it cost?     Office worker: Are you a full time student?    Student: Yes.    Office worker: Then, you're covered. You've paid the membership fee as part of your tuition.    Student: Well, why didn't I know that?    Office worker: I guess you didn't read the fine print, huh? Well, all full time students are required to pay a fee that gives access to the facility as part of their tuition. It's $50 per semester.    Student: Oh, okay. But I'm still required to register?    Office worker: Yes. As I said, when you register, we'll give you an additional three-digit number to put at the end of your student ID number. That number will be your membership number here. It will be permanent, as long as you're enrolled in the university. After entering the building and punching your number in the keypad by the door, you can access all rooms in the center, except the employee-only spaces: the indoor track, climbing walls, strength and conditioning rooms, swimming pools, as well as all kinds of courts including racquetball courts. Okay? Then, give me your ID number, please.    Student: 5559023.    Office worker: All right... So, you are John Tobin. Hi, John. My name is Shirley. I'll go ahead and fill out your form for you. When you come in, please come by our office and sign the form, though. We're at Room 100, the administration office, in McCallum Student Center.    Student: Thank you, Shirley. Okay, so, I can make the reservation?    Office worker: Yes. Usually you have to call the Equipment Check-out Desk for racquetball courts. But I'll put in in for you just this time. For future reference, reservations can be made by phone at 590-4910 or in person at the Equipment Check-out Desk. Also you can reserve a court or any other facility up to 2 days in advance.    Student: I'd like to have a court from 10:00 to noon Friday, please.    Office worker: Well, you can keep a court for one hour per reservation. One reservation per person per day for one hour in length -- that's the rule. But your partner can hold another hour. Is he a fulltime student?    Student: Uh, I'm pretty sure he is.    Office worker: If he's a full-timer and has already registered -- you can't do it for him, sorry, he has to do it himself -- um, anyway, then, he can reserve a court. But if he's a part-timer and he hasn't paid the membership fee yet -- um, what I mean is, if he hasn't registered here yet... In that case, he can, um... Well, let me see here. Okay, right here, it says: Part time students and student spouses have to purchase memberships at a cost of $55 per semester. The extra five dollar is a processing fee. By the way, if you want to have a locker, locker rentals are also available each term at the rate of $36 per semester for full lockers, and $27 for half lockers. If you want to use towels, the service costs you $10 extra. There's a hamper by the door when you come in the locker room. Help yourself.    Student: Well, sounds very reasonable. But first, could you please check if he is? His name is James Woodridge.     Office worker: You mean if he is registered?    Student: If he's a fulltime student or not. Oh, yeah, I got what you mean. Yes, please check if he is registered. And if he is I can get a court for two hours, right?    Office worker: Right. Well, here he is. He's a member all right.     Student: Oh, good.    Office worker: So, I've got you two down for Friday from 10:00 for two hours. Please come in early because the holding time is only 10 minutes. Which means, you have until 10 minutes after the hour, which is 10:10, to clock-in and claim your court reservation. After 10 minutes, the court will be assigned to someone else on a first come and first serve basis. You got that?    Student: Sure. Okay.    Office worker: All right. You're all set. Your 3-digit number will be 465.     Student: Incidentally, what are the hours? Is the center open on weekends?    Office worker: Certainly. It's open on weekends from Saturday 10 am through Sunday at 11 pm. Weekdays, from 7:00 am to midnight.     Student: Oh, good.    Office worker: Don't forget to come in and we also need to check your ID card when you sign the form. Okay?    Student: I'll do that. Your office keeps the same hours as the center, doesn't it?    Office worker: Uh, actually, ours are from 9 to 4.    Student: I'll see you on Friday morning, then.
p.266
    Narrator: Listen to a group of students having a discussion with an official of the university.    Official: Good afternoon, everyone. I'm Brian Crestwood from the University Child Care Center. Today I'll answer any questions you have about the various programs available to students with children. We have only an hour, so let's get started, shall we?    Female Student 1: Well, I heard that there are age-limits for the child care programs on campus. What are they, Mr. Crestwood?    Official: Okay, well, all depends. Uh, first of all, at this university we offer three programs for students who have children. For those of you with very young children, we have a day care program that takes infants from 3 months to 30 months. We have another program for preschool children between two and four years of age. We also have an after-school program for school-aged children who are the age six and older. Yes?    Male student: I have a ten-year-old girl. She is interested in soccer. Does this after-school program offer any sports activities?    Official: Certainly. The program offers not just sports, but crafts, outings, and tutoring, among other things, during after-school hours. They keep children up until 5:00 most of the week.    Female student 1: What are the requirement to be eligible for these?    Official: These programs are available to any student who has registered in more than three courses in the current semester. The fees are on an hourly basis. You can take a look at the fee list on the handouts I distributed. It starts from $8 for each after-school activity. But since there are all sorts of waivers you can apply for, you may be able to get the activities for nothing. Some of the waivers are listed in the handouts, but if you have any questions about those exemption plans, feel free to talk to me after the meeting.    Female student 2: No, but, uh, actually, I'm applying for an apartment in the family housing on campus. While driving by yesterday, I saw a big schoolyard near the housing complex. I may be wrong but I assume it's part of your center, what with school buses parked in front and all. Isn't it one of your facilities?    Official: Yes, that's our family-housing branch. One of the newest additions to our program.    Female student 2: That's great. It'll take only two minutes to walk across there. Is there any special program for the residents of the family housing, by any chance?     Official: I'm glad you asked. As a matter of fact, besides these campus-wide programs for regular students with children, the University Child Care Center also offers three programs for parents in family-student housing. We're very proud of these programs the university's offering for that sector of our student body. The first program is the nursery for infants and toddlers. Our nursery is open from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. Monday to Friday for children up to four. Parents must schedule in advance the times at which they plan to drop off and pick up their children. You can leave your children with us at the nursery from 8 to 9 and pick them up from 3 on. You can sign up for this program anytime.    Female student 2: How about the costs? Oh, and where is it located?    Official: Glad to tell you there's no cost..., um, I mean, you don't need to pay for the nursery as long as the total hours for each child per week don't exceed 30 hours. Beyond that, you'll have to bear the costs at the rate of $3 per hour. Our new Child Care Center is for exclusively for the residents in the housing complexes. And, as you noticed, it's conveniently located on West Campus Road adjacent to the family-student-housing complexes. The kindergarten is on the first floor of the center. The nursery and other facilities are one floor up in the same building. We also have a walk-in health clinic next to the nursery on the same floor. All the rest of the students can use the main Child Care Headquarters at the corner of College and Davis in East campus.    And, speaking of which, the university kindergarten is our second program. This program is available to parents with children between the age of four and six years, taking up children after the nursery. I have to tell you about this kindergarten. It's great. It's fully accredited by the public school system. Our teachers are all state certified and we have the best teachers. And the curriculum either meets or surpasses the curriculum of public kindergartens. They've been doing our university proud. The kindergarten is, by the way, open from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. on weekdays.    Official: Yes, as a matter of fact, we do. Well, that's our third program. It's an after-school childcare program. This and the other day care programs are mutually exclusive, so to speak, because this one's only offered at the family-housing facility. This is also fully accredited by the public school system. This program is not free of charge, though. Another thing is, it stays open until 7 p.m., unlike our regular daycare, which closes at 6:00. Children can stay there another hour uh... at a cost of $120 per school term. This is possible thanks to its propinquity to your residence complex.    Female student 1: Wow, that's unheard of nowadays!    Official: You mean the hours, right? I know. Isn't it fantastic?    Male student: $120 a term is not bad at all, either. You wouldn't believe how much they charge for daycare at other places in town! When can I apply for these programs?    Official: Yeah, all of the fees are quite reasonable. Unfortunately, however, enrollment in these programs at the Child Care Center is limited and early application is essential, well, um, since our programs often have long waiting lists, as you can imagine. If any of you new students need these services, help yourself to the brochures and forms on the desk here. Please let me know right away if you need any assistance so I can direct you to the right office to get you orientated. I have a line on every service office on campus! Oh, in case you need a duplicate of the forms or more information, another way of getting them is to download them from our website, www.umchildcare.org.    Male student: I'd better get cracking.
p.505
Narrator: Listen to students discussing topics in marine biology.    Female student: You'd better hurry up and learn to scuba-dive, John.    Male student 1: What do you mean?    Female student: According to Professor Smith of my marine biology course, a lot of corals and marine animals will be gone in the near future.    Male student 1: Oh, you're talking about the bleaching, right?    Male student 2: I heard that, too.    Female student: Not just that. Professor Smith is the coordinator of the U.S. Virgin Islands Coral Monitoring program. He's the main guy keeping track of corals and other things for ecological research there. He actually dives all over the Caribbean. He just came back from a trip to Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands and told us that about one-third of the coral in official monitoring sites has recently died. That's a conservative estimate, at that! He says it's an unprecedented rate. He hasn't seen anything close to this rate of loss in the Caribbean before. The biggest loss of reefs that scientists have ever seen!    Male student 2: Wow, sounds bad! But how did that happen? Pollution?    Female student: Uh-uh. Evidently, a one-two punch of bleaching from record warm water temperatures followed by disease has killed all those corals in Caribbean waters.Among them were ancient and delicate corals that were there when Columbus came, you know. He found a colony of 800-year old star coral -- awesome creature! more than 13 feet high -- that had just died in the waters off Puerto Rico. He saw an old chuck of brain coral -- the one that looks like the human brain, you know -- about 3 feet in diameter, that was at least 90 percent dead from this disease called "white plague." Sounds awful, doesn't it?    Male student 1: Good God! More beautiful things bite the dust because of global warming! You're right, I needed to take up diving yesterday! But, can't we expect them to come back some way or another? Can we do anything about it?    Female student: Well, we're talking about the extremely slow-growing reef-building corals. Some of the devastated coral can never be replaced because it only grows half an inch a year, if that!    Male student 2: The repercussions from that must be devastating. I mean, if corals go, fish will go. You know, corals are the foundation of the reef and major fish species use coral as habitat and feeding grounds. No more sushi!?    Female student: What's more, coral reefs are the basis for a multibillion-dollar tourism and commercial fishing economy in the Caribbean. Also, I didn't know this, but evidently reefs limit the damage from natural disasters like hurricanes and tsunamis. On top of that, recently they are being touted as possible sources for new medicines, too.    Male student 1: Medicine? Really?    Female student: Yeah, really. But before we can develop drugs for, say, maybe, cancer or some currently untreatable disease, they will be gone for good.    Male student 2: Is it just the Caribbean? Or all over the world? Are we all doomed? I'm getting spooked...    Female student: According to Professor Smith, the Caribbean is actually better off than some areas of the Indian and Pacific oceans. In those areas mortality rates -- mostly from warming waters -- um, the rates there have been in the 90 percent range in past years. 90 percent! Can you believe that? He called what's happening worldwide "an underwater holocaust."    Male student 2: All right, now I'm totally spooked. Isn't there anything scientists can do?    Female student: Like what?    Male student 2: Uh, like treat the disease or remedy the situation, anything?    Male student 1: Well, what do you think, Garry? The problem isn't what they can do, but what we do. People're still debating whether global warming is real or not. Unreal!    Female student: Really. "The progress is not good," he said. With global warming, scientists are very pessimistic about the future of coral reefs. Then he blurted out, "if you want to see a reef, go now, because they just won't survive in their current state." He was dead serious.    Male student 2: Sad and frustrating and frightening! Well, did all this happen pretty quickly? Or has something been festering for a while?     Female student: Until last year, only a few coral species would bleach during hot water spells and the problem would occur only at certain depths. But in summer of 2005, bleaching struck in a far greater area of the region, at all depths and among most species. For the Caribbean, it all started with very warm sea temperatures, first in Panama last spring, and it got worse from there. Sea surface temperatures in the Caribbean last summer were by far the highest in 21 years of satellite monitoring and this wrecked ore havoc on marine ecology last year than in all the previous 20 years combined.    Male student 1: It's so mind-boggling! Something so extensive and so devastating is happening right in front of us and right this minute but so silently that nobody sees it, except divers and scientists, of course...    Female student: Professor Smith compared it to a scenario where every city in the United States records high temperatures at the same and it remains hot for weeks, even months. That'd be just about the equivalent of what happened in the Caribbean.     Male student 1: But how exactly does heat kill corals? I know they bleach, or turn white, but how, actually, does this happen? Do you know?     Female student: Actually, corals don't change color. The algae on them does. The heat causes the symbiotic algae that provide food for the coral to die and turn white. "Symbiotic," because the coral, in turn, gives the algae a place to live, I guess. Anyway, that puts the coral in critical condition. If the coral remains without algae for more than a week, the chance of death soars, he says.    Male student 2: Not all of them are gone yet, though, right? Please!    Female student: More than 90 percent of lettuce coral and star coral, and nearly 60 percent of brain coral have already bleached in St. Croix, one of the U.S. Virgin Islands. And you know what Professor Smith said? He said much of the coral actually started to recover from the bleaching last fall, but then, bam! The disease struck the weakened colonies and finished them off.    Male student 1: Sounds like the doomsday scenario for the death of the ocean.    Female student: Really. The question is whether the coral can adapt sufficiently quickly to cope with climate change. He thinks the evidence we have at the moment tells us, "No, they can't." So, the fish will go. The smaller predators will go. The invertebrates will go. The same ecosystem won't be sustained.     Male student 2: My goodness! I feel like curling up in the corner of my room and crying!
p.403
Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in biochemistry.    Professor: The next thing I'd like to talk about is the cyclic process of energy generation in a cell, namely, the ATP cycle in mitochondria. The chemical compound adenosine triphosphate is usually abbreviated as ATP.     Well, first of all, ATP is very, very important because it's the primary source of energy for all living cells. Just like monetary currency, ATP is valuable and ubiquitous, being used to provide energy in a wide variety of metabolic reactions. You could say it's a "universal molecule of energy transfer" in living things. Hence, ATP is commonly referred to as the free energy currency, or coin, of the cell, as well. Nevertheless, the energy content of ATP is not significantly different from other phosphates. Um... for whatever reason, however, evolution has created an array of enzymes that preferentially bind with ATP to produce energy for driving reactions in all living things.    Where do we find ATP? Well, ATP is in the cytosol and the mitochondria in the cell. The cytosol -- you may also call it the ground substance of the cell. This cytosol is the fluid portion of the cell that surrounds and, um, contains the cellular constituents, including the mitochondria. Most of the ATP is found in the cytosol, but the major work of energy production is performed in the mitochondria.     The mitochondria are known as the cellular energy powerhouse. Why? Because their sole job is to convert fuel that is food, to energy. The mitochondria provide energy for most of the energy-consuming activities of the cell by... uh... transferring energy from chemical bonds to energy absorbing reactions within the cell. Particularly mitochondrion-rich tissues.. you know, mitochondrion is the singular form of the term "mitochondria"... anyway, um, mitochondrion-rich tissues are those of the skeletal muscles, heart, liver, pancreas and kidneys. Let's see... Uh, heart and skeletal muscles work hard to meet the body's constant demand for mechanical work. Um, mitochondria in liver cells contain enzymes to detoxify ammonia, which is a waste product of protein metabolism. How about the pancreas? The pancreas is involved in important biosynthesis. And the process of excretion begins in the kidney. What is common to the tissues of all these organs? Do you know? Charles?    Male student: Uh, I think they are... um, all of them are big consumers of energy, for starters...    Professor: Bingo! That's it. Those tissues require a lot of energy in order to function. Hence, they have a lot of mitochondria. Okay, then, how does the energy cycle in mitochondria work? The ATP molecule is composed of three components. At the center is a sugar molecule, ribose -- the same sugar that forms the basis of DNA. Attached to one side of this is adenine. The other side of the sugar is attached to a string of phosphate groups. These phosphates are the key to the activity of ATP.    As you may know, "tri" of triphosphate means "three" and so ATP has three phosphates. When the chemical bond holding one of the phosphate molecules in ATP is broken, energy is released. This energy is then used to do work in the cell. What is left-over from this process is adenosine diphosphate, or ADP, and a free phosphate. Three phosphates minus one free phosphate are two phosphates, so "di" of diphosphate "two." Elementary! Right? Right. And, once ATP releases its energy, most of the resulting ADP returns to the mitochondria to be recycled back into ATP. After ATP forms again in the energy recycling process, it leaves the mitochondria and moves to the region of the cell needing energy.     By the way, in order to generate ATP again from ADP and free phosphate we need to add energy back to form the bond. As we learned last time, the loss of an electron by a molecule, atom or ion is called...? What? Anyone?     Male student: ...um, oxidation?    Professor: Uh, huh, right. In oxidation, an electron is released or removed. Remember? In this case, electrons released in oxidizing the carbon fuels are used to recycle ADP back into ATP in the mitochondria. This process of energy formation and transfer by the mitochondria is called respiration... yes?    Female student: Professor Roberts, respiration is breathing, isn't it?    Professor: Yes, it is. As a matter of fact, the process is essentially breathing. It's called "respiration" simply because it require oxygen, just like our breathing, as you said.    In any case, in order to understand the system by which.. uh, excuse me, the mechanism of conserving the energy as ATP from respiration, it's necessary to, um, appreciate the structural features of mitochondria. Well, mitochondria have two types of membranes: one is an outer membrane, which allows the passage of most small molecules and ions, and the other is a highly folded inner membrane, which does not even allow the passage of small ions and so, as a result, maintains a closed space within the cell.     Nonetheless, to be of any use, ATP formed inside the mitochondria has to be moved into the cytosol of the cell to release energy. At the same time, ADP from the cytosol has to be moved into mitochondria, where it can be recycled to ATP. Because the inner membrane is impermeable to both ATP and ADP, however, they need assistance from a certain enzyme to keep ATP flowing to the cell and ADP flowing to the mitochondria. These enzymes are located in and on the inner membrane.     And when everything works smoothly and oxygen and food -- that is, fuel, is plentiful, energy recycling occurs unimpeded millions of times per second in every cell in the body. And also, the energy to create ATP from ADP comes ultimately from the sun via photosynthesis. Plants store extra energy as glucose. Uh, it's a national, er, rather, natural form of sugar and is used as a "fuel" to create more ATP in mitochondria of not just plants' but all living cells. And the final products generated by this whole metabolic system are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water. As you know, carbon dioxide is released when we exhale. Some of the water is also exhaled, and the rest is transported to the kidneys to be excreted as urine with other waste.
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Narrator: Listen to a professor leading a class discussion in a communication science class.    Professor: Okay, folks. We contrasted cultures in terms of communication patterns in last week's class. The gist of it is: Communication in high-context cultures depends heavily on the context, or nonverbal aspects of communication. Much information to be exchanged is implicit as it is among a close-knit family. On the other hand, low-context cultures depend more on explicit, verbally expressed communication. A highly literate, well read culture like academia is considered a low-context culture, as it relies heavily on information communicated explicitly by words. We've seen that these differences in communication styles can lead to major misunderstandings.     Today, we'll talk about the practical application of this contrast in conducting research. At first, let's look at some demographic statistics. The U.S. population more than tripled during the 20th century. It's now estimated to be about 288 million. And most of the increase is credited to minority sectors. Census figures of the year 2000 show that the 31 percent of the population is comprised of minority residents. The official census number indicate the presence of more than 36 million blacks (about 13% of the population), 41.3 million Hispanics (about 14%), 11.9 million Asians (about 4%), and 4 million American Indians (about 1.5%). Whites still make up more than 69% of the total U.S. population, but that percentage is declining: as you can see, the figure was 75 percent in 1990. The Hispanics and the Asian populations, in particular, have been increasing very rapidly. This fact substantiates our claim that possessing cross-cultural communication skills is becoming more and more critical in all sorts of research.    When we take up any kind of study involving human subjects, first of all, we have to be prepared to know the people in the study groups in terms of their cultural and socio-economic background. Your research should identify the cultural groups of your subjects because even among immigrant groups from the same country, there are significant cultural variations resulting from  differences in education, degree of assimilation, and, um, socioeconomic status. Second, we have to be aware of the sensitive nature of this type of research and try to avoid even the appearance of stereotyping and try to reach out to all people individually. Well, successful cross-cultural communication begins with knowledge, as they say. This high- and low- context comparison gives us a handle on communicating across cultural boundaries.     Note that hidden cultures of poverty and illiteracy also exist within communities and this issue must be addressed when conducting interviews and meetings. Literacy is the big problem. Uh, results of the government's National Adult Literacy Survey show that 46 to 51% of adults in this country performed at the borderline level of functional literacy. This amounts to a whopping 90 million people! So, written communication may not be the best approach when dealing with a community with a high rate of illiteracy. This presents a problem for communicating detailed, highly technical information. Consequently, when we design our research, we'll have to take both economics and education into consideration. In any case, every effort must be made to reach these segments of the communities to make our study population a well-represented one.    Well, okay, then, let's go over our Communication Watch List here. You're supposed to read the whole list and summarize it. This should make us more aware of and responsive to situations arising from communication glitches and impasses. Item No.1 is Nonverbal communication. Bob, can you explain this one to the class?    Male student 1: Uh, nonverbal communication is carried out though intangibles. I mean, your body language, status, relationships, use of silence and tone, and stuff like that -- factors communicating meaning other than spoken words.    Professor: Right. Studies show that more than 60% of communication is nonverbal and will be remembered long after your actual words. Many cultures determine the seriousness of your message not by your words, but by your actions and emotions during your delivery. Okay, how about second in the list -- eye contact?    Male student 1: Well, most of us were taught to look at a person while we're talking with and listening to him. But, um, in some cultures, looking down is considered a sign of respect and direct eye contact is regarded as confrontational. American tend to think you are untrustworthy if you don't look them in the eye, though.     Professor: Okay. There's a poser. Item 3 -- Smiling. How can it be a problem?     Male student: Can I take that one?    Professor: Sure, go ahead.     Male student: Well, what we have here is sort of a false-positive problem, so to speak. Uh, I mean, when you don't see any smiling faces among your subjects, it may not necessarily mean you failed to communicate with them. Acceptance of you, or, um, empathy toward you may be hidden behind that straight face. People from different cultures express emotions and stuff in ways that are different and so, uh, unfamiliar to us. It can mean that the guy is just being polite to you, and he may not either agree with you or understand you.    Male student 1: Yeah, I noticed that, even here in the States, people up north don't smile as much as we do around here.     Professor: Now that you mentioned it, that's true, isn't it? Ha! Well, well. Okay, next?    Male student 2: Next item is "Touching." In many cultures, it's considered improper to touch a stranger. In a study cited here, a group of researchers counted casual touches during conversations in outdoor cafes in different counties. A total of 160 touches per hour were recorded in San Juan, Puerto Rico, two per hour in Florida, and zero in London. This tells you when in doubt, do not touch, other than maybe a formal handshake. Uh, also, don't touch with the left hand, because in some cultures that is considered taboo.    Professor: Well. Okay, next?    Female student: Item 5 is "space." Which means, interpersonal space. In the United States, many people stand an arm's length from each other, without even realizing doing it. It's just sort of a reflex. In some Asian cultures, people stand even farther apart. And in some Hispanic or Latino cultures, people are comfortable standing closer to each other than arm's length. As always, you should observe the behaviors of the group and follow their lead.    Professor: All right. So far so good! The last one on the list is about... ?    Female student: It's about perception of time. Different cultures have different concepts of punctuality. When some people agree to meet at a certain time, 10:00 for example, they see 10:00 as a discrete point in time when the meeting is scheduled to begin, and anyone who arrives after 10:00 is considered late. They are kind of stickler for time. Other cultures see the meeting time as a diffused point, and anyone who arrives between 10:00 and, say, 10:30 is considered punctual. Mind you, this doesn't give you license to be late. You must be on time, as always, but you must also be prepared to be delayed.     Professor: Excellent! You guys have done a good job of summing up the communication tip list. Um, I can add a thing or two from my own experience in the field here. First of all, we should aviod humor and jokes. American humor often depends on wordplays that don't translate well and can unnecessarily confuse your listeners. Rely always on a pleasant facial expression, instead. On the technical front, we should always use visual aids wherever and whenever possible. A picture really is worth a thousand words; the universal language of visuals can make your job much easier. As I said last week, we must recognize our own culturally bounded assumptions and perceptive. So, try to communicate respect and to demonstrate flexibility, and, most of all, try not to judge.
CD 1-12
    Narrator: Listen as a student talks with a campus housing services office worker.    Office worker: Housing Services. How may I help you?    Student: Oh, hi. I'm calling to find out about housing registration for summer school.    Office worker: Okay. What is your question regarding?    Student: Well, I'm transferring from Mercer University this summer and enrolling in summer school. Um, according to the student bulletin, first year students have to live on campus. The thing is, it's already May, and I suppose all the residence halls must be occupied by now.    Office worker: Uh, you may be right, even though I can't say for sure right off hand. But the University's First-Year Live-On Requirement can be waived if you obtain a letter to that effect from the Director of Residence Hall Administrative Operations. There are several conditions you will have to meet for that, though...    Student: Oh, well, I... actually, I'd like to live in a dorm if a room is available. I found out it's very expensive to rent a room around here. I was looking for a cheap room since I'll be on my own from now on, forking out for room and board and everything on a very small budget.     Office worker: Okay. Well, in that case, there are a couple of ways to register and find a room in one of the dormitories on campus. But, first things first. Let me check the occupancy list of the residential halls on campus to see if any space is available for you. By the way, what's your name?     Student: George McCall.    Office worker: ...Okay, George. There are a few rooms left in Stedman Hall. That's the tall brick building at the corner of College Avenue and Jackson Street. Also, there is one single room available in Reed Hall of West Campus Village.     Student: Uh, one more thing I want to know is... well, um, can I room with a friend of mine? He's also transferring here from Mercer and enrolling in summer school.    Office worker: Yes, as a matter of fact, you can if you find a double occupancy room available. But, at this time of the year, uh, I'm not sure...    Student: Well, the most important thing is for each of us to find a room. So if it's too much trouble, I might as well forget it.     Office worker: No, no, don't be hasty. You never know -- maybe you'll get lucky. Let me check the rooms in Stedman Hall. ...Well, well, what do you know? Today is your lucky day. There is one double room left at Stedman. If I were you I'd grab it right away, though. It looks like that's the only one on campus right now, you know.     Student: Great! Okay, what am I supposed to do?    Office worker: You will have to fill out a registration form. This has to be signed by the person responsible for the payment of room and board. You can print form and register online from the "Register for Housing" section of this department's website. But that way may take a couple of days to process the form. Since you're in a hurry, you should fill out the form and submit it to this office, instead. That way, it will be processed immediately and the contract will be effective in three or four days.    Student: Seems like it should be the other way around... oh, well.    Office worker: Yeah, you would imagine. But online registration's not instant because it require a background check on you, which usually takes a couple of days. Here in the office you can verify our information on you in person -- so it'll take only ten or fifteen minutes. Go figure. I didn't design the website.    Student: I got you. Ha ha.    Office worker: Oh, by the way, you'll also need an assignment from, which is a form guaranteeing your room. After the registration is completed, you'll have to email Assignments Office for a copy of the Summer 2006 Housing Assignment Form. You'll detach the bottom part, fill it out, sign it and send it here. You'll take the top part of form to the resident hall when you check in. Your resident adviser will take care of the rest.     Student: Whoa, slow down, please. So I need to get another form from another office... ?    Office worker: Yeah. But you need to worry about only one step a time. When you finish registration, you'll receive the instruction on what to do after that by email.     Student: Okay. Good. And I can get the rate and more information on the website, right?    Office worker: Certainly. By the way, all summer school rent will be billed directly to the payee -- that is you or whoever pays for it. The payment will be due on the date established by this office, usually the 5th of each month. You'll get a one-week grace period if you're late. All communication regarding billing will also be delivered via students' official campus email account. So check your email regularly after moving into the hall.     Student: Okay, I'll do that. By the way, what are your hours?    Office worker: From 9 to 4 Monday to Friday. Are you coming by today?    Student: Might as well. Thank you.     Office worker: You're very welcome.
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Narrator: Listen as the professor leads a discussion in a geology class.     Professor: Fossils are the mineralized remains of animals, plants, and other organisms or other artifacts such as footprints. The totality of fossils and their placement in fossiliferous, or "fossil-containing," rock formations and sedimentary layers, or strata, is known as the fossil record. The study of fossils is called paleontology. By the way, the word fossil is derived from the Latin word fossus, which means "having been dug up."    Fossils usually consists of traces of the remains of the organism itself. However, fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as the footprint or faces of a dinosaur or reptile. These types of fossil are called trace fossils, as opposed to body fossils. Finally, past life leaves some evidence that cannot be seen but can be detected in the form of chemical signals; these are known as chemical fossils, for lack of better term.     Fossilization is actually a rare occurrence because natural materials tend to decompose and be recycled. In order for an organism to be fossilized, the remains normally need to be covered by sediment as soon as possible. There are several different types of fossils and fossilization processes. The detailed explanations are in the handout I gave you last week. Do you have any questions about any of them? No, okay, then. Let's take a closer look of some of them. Okay, class, what is permineralization?     Male student 1: Permineralization is ...uh, this process consists of literally turning an organism into stone. The organism gets covered by sediment soon after death, or after the initial decaying process. Once covered with sediment, these layers slowly compact to rock, and the chemicals in the remains are slowly replaced with hard minerals.     Professor: Uh huh. As the organism continues to decay slowly, water infused with minerals passes through it, replacing the chemicals in it with rock-like minerals. The degree to which the remains have decayed when covered, determines the later details of the fossil. Therefore, while some fossils only consist of skeletal remains or teeth, others contain traces of skin, feathers or even soft tissues!    Let's talk about trace fossils next. Trace fossils are those details preserved in rocks that are indirect evidence of life, as it were. While we are most familiar with relatively spectacular fossils of hard part remains such as shells and bones, trace fossils are often less dramatic, but nonetheless very important. They are mainly the remains of burrows, footprints, eggs and shells, nests and droppings. Among them, coprolites, the fossilized feces, are very important because they can give, uh, insight into the feeding behavior of animals.     Another thing is, the study of trace remains is also very challenging, since many trace remains cannot be positively assigned to a specific organism. Further, trace remains such as burrows can make the work for paleontologists and geologist more difficult because older strata are easily mixed with younger ones. This can cause some confusion in interpretation unless viewed in context. There are two main kinds of trace fossils -- molds and casts -- right? Who can explain this?     Male student 2: A cast fossil is a fossil that retains the shape of the original object. The dinosaur bones you see at a museum are examples of cast fossils. If the burial of the organism was rapid, then chances are good that even impressions of soft tissues remain. A cast is a 3-D example of an object of the past created when a mold fills up with sediment like mud, sand or volcanic ash. A mold fossil is like an impression. The original object is no longer there, but a mold of its shape is. Fossilized footprints and many plants are preserved as mold fossils. A mold forms when something is pressed into soft mud and removed by decomposition or pulled out, leaving an impression of the object.     Professor: Good. Okay, then. Let's talk about "pseudofossils" and "transitional fossils," shall we? I know they are kind of confusing. Let's hear the definitions first. Debby?     Female student: Uh, okay. Pseudofossils are inorganic objects, markings, or impressions that might be mistaken for fossils. These are regular patterns in rocks, which are produced by natural occurring process. These pseusofossils can be formed by naturally formed cracks in the rock that get filled up by percolating minerals. They can easily be mistaken for real fossils.     Professor: Why's that?     Female student: Um, because some types of mineral deposits can mimic life-forms by forming what appear to be life, uh, highly detailed or organized structures. They can be very misleading.     Professor: Good, good. You must've seen crystal growth of frost on a window before. When crystals grow they form a tree-like shape. This type of mineral mass found in sedimentary rock are sometimes thought to be fossils, and occasionally one contains a fossil, but they are generally not fossils themselves.     Male student 1: Buy why do you still call them "fossils"?    Professor: Pseudofossils means false fossils. You know, "pseudonym" is an assumed name. And "pseudo intellectuals" aren't the real thing. But it's good to know there is such a species around looking like one and tricking you into thinking it is one.  Likewise, we need to know about psuedofossiles just because they are often mistaken for the real stuff. As you see in the photo on Page 129, anybody without a lot of experience would take it for the imprint of a fern. You'd never guess that is inorganic. What you're looking at is, in fact, oxidized manganese that has grown on the plane between layers of sandstone. The one on the facing page looks a lot like a sand dollar you find on the beach, doesn't it?     From these photos, you can easily see that cracks, bumps, gas bubbles, and such can be difficult to distinguish from true fossils. So, debates about whether they are pseudo or true fossils can be long and difficult. For example, a certain complex lumpy form found in some rocks was thought to be a fossil of algae for a long time, until it was identified in recent lavas.    Okay, as long as we are on the confusing topic, why don't we look at transitional fossils?     Male student 2: A transitional fossil is the fossil remains of a creature that shows primitive traits of the more evolved or derived life-forms that are related to it. According to evolutionary theory, a transitional form represents an evolutionary stage.     Professor: That's right. When Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species was first published, the fossil record wasn't well known, and the claim that there was a lack of transitional fossils was perfectly reasonable. However, only two years later Archaeopteryx, which is considered by many to be the first bird was discovered and seen as a stunning triumph for Darwin's theory of common descent. Similarly, Othniel Charles Marsh, head of the Yale Peabody Museum, provided groundbreaking evidence of transitional fossils in the evolution of horses. This has been considered one of the best examples of a clear transition between species. However, anti-evolutionists and creationists argue that the many gaps in the fossil record do exist are evidence that cuts against the theory of evolution.
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Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in an economics class.     Professor: We've been talking about the Reagan and Bush administrations' tax policies. Now, to make clear what those administrations, especially the Reagan administration, brought about in terms of economic discrepancies among the people, let's take the federal income tax returns from 1989.     Well, in the year 1989, a time of middle-class decline, the top 4 percent of all wage earners in the country collected as much in wages and salaries as the bottom 51 percent of the population, believe it or not. In more precise numbers, 3.8 million individuals and families at the top earned as much from their jobs as did 49.2 million individuals and families at the bottom.     To really bring it home to you, I can show you the figures for 1970 and 1959. Here goes: In 1970, the top 4 percent earned as much on the job as the bottom 38 percent, and in 1959, a time of growing middle-class prosperity, the good old days, they earned as much as the bottom 35 percent.     Let's take a closer look at our middle class. Median family income in 1989 was $34,213, which means half of all Americans earned more and half earned less. So, the heart of the middle class may be defined as those wage earners who reported incomes between $20,000 and $50,000 on their tax returns in that year. And they accounted for 35 percent of all tax returns.     Slightly fewer than ten million tax returns were filed by the $15,000-to-$20,000 income group that year. That represent 10 percent of all returns. At the other end of the extended middle class are people earning $50,000 to $70,000, uh, $75,000, rather. That income group filed a total of 9.2 million returns, accounting for 10 percent of all returns.     Overall, 53.2 million individuals and families in the extended middle class -- with income between $15,000 and $75,000 -- filed tax returns. They accounted for 55 percent of all returns. That put 37.3 million individuals and families at the bottom, with incomes below $15,000. They represented 39 percent of total returns. While this figure includes returns filed by teenagers working part-time, the overwhelming majority are married couples, single persons and single parents who represent the working poor.     Now look at the other side of coin: How does the tax system figure in this matter? Okay, during the 1950s, median-income families each paid 1.7 percent of their income in Social Security taxes. In the 1980s, they paid 7 percent of their income. Those with incomes of ten times the median income paid tax of 0.2 percent of their income in the 1950s; in the 1980s, they still paid tax of less than 1 percent of their income. Next to nothing!    Another set of numbers: In 1970, individuals and families with incomes between $500,000 and $1 million paid, on average, $304,408 in combined federal income and Social Security taxes. By 1989, they paid $168,714 -- or $135,694 less than nineteen years earlier. That amounted to a tax cut of 45%! 45%, folks! By way of comparison, during the same period, the taxes for people in the $25,000-to-$30,000 income group fell a meager 9 percent.     When Congress enacted the Tax Reform Act of 1986, lawmakers hailed its alternative minimum tax provision as the most stringent ever, guaranteeing that nobody would escape paying at least some tax. Under the existing law that year, 198,688 individuals and families with incomes over $100,000 paid alternative minimum taxes totaling $4.6 billion. Three years later, in 1989, under the new law praised by those lawmakers, 49,844 individuals and families with incomes over $100,000 paid alternative minimum taxes totaling $476 million.     Do you see what's happening here? Passage of "the toughest minimum tax ever" resulted in a 75 percent drop in the number of millionaires who paid the tax, and a 90 percent drop in the amount they paid. On average, a millionaire in 1989 paid an alternative minimum tax of $116,395. Three years later, the average millionaire paid $54,758. That amounted to a 53 percent tax cut. Reaganomics was at work! Incredible, isn't it? I wouldn't call Congress indifferent, as some liberal economists, like Ezra Williams and James Bernstein, do. Nothing indifferent about it. Senators and Representatives were active accomplices, or worse, instigators of this whole process of shifting tax burdens to the middle and lower income groups from the wealthy.     Here's yet another set of numbers: Between 1980 and 1989, the average wage earned by those in the under-$20,000 income category rose $123 -- from $8,528 to $8,651. That was an increase of 1.4 percent. Over the same decade, the average salaries of people with total incomes of more than $1 million rose by $255,088 -- from $515,499 to $770,587 -- an increase of 49.5 percent. What's this? This is a total abomination. Also don't forget that what I'm talking about is their increase in wages and salaries alone.    As you may recall from the last lecture, the interest on bonds issued by local and state governments is exempt from federal income taxes. As a result, some 800,000 persons with income over $100,000 picked up $20.1 billion from their exempt-bond holdings and escaped payment of $5.6 billion in federal income taxes.     Naturally, that lost revenue was made up by other taxpayers -- among them the 26.5 million persons with income of under $20,000 a year who obligingly paid taxes on the interest earned from their miserly savings account. All together, these persons paid about $7.1 billion in federal income taxes on savings account interest that averaged a whopping $1,782 for the year! Not to mention that many of the same millionaires escaped payment of billions of dollars in state income taxes as a result of their investment in United States government securities, which are also exempt from state and local taxes.