All AP Lang Terms

RHETORICAL TERMS

Before You Begin

Start by becoming familiar with Lou Gehrig’s Farewell Speech, which provides excellent examples of many rhetorical strategies discussed below.

AUDIENCE

The listener, viewer, or reader of a text. Most texts are likely to have multiple intended audiences.
Example: Gehrig’s audience was his teammates and fans in the stadium that day, but also the teams he played against, the fans listening on the radio, and posterity — us.

CONCESSION

An acknowledgment that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. In a strong argument, a concession is usually accompanied by a refutation challenging the validity of the opposing argument.
Example: Lou Gehrig concedes what some of his listeners may think — that his bad break is a cause for discouragement or despair.

CONNOTATION

Refers to the emotional or cultural associations that a word carries beyond its literal meaning (denotation). These associations can be positive, negative, or neutral and can significantly influence how a message is received.
Examples:

• Positive: "Youthful" / "Thrifty" / "Curious"
  
  

• Negative: "Childish" / "Stingy" / "Nosy"
  
  

CONTEXT

The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text.
Example: The context for Lou Gehrig’s speech is the recent announcement of his illness and his subsequent retirement, but also the poignant contrast between his potent career and his debilitating disease.

COUNTERARGUMENT

An opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward. Rather than ignoring a counterargument, a strong writer addresses it through concession and refutation.
Example: Some of Gehrig’s listeners might have argued that his bad break was a cause for discouragement or despair.

DICTION

Diction refers to a speaker’s or writer’s word choice. It plays a crucial role in shaping the tone, mood, and overall effectiveness of a message.
Why Diction Matters in Rhetoric

EXIGENCE

The event or occurrence that prompts rhetorical discourse; the exigence is that which begins the “cycle” of rhetorical discourse about a particular issue.
Example:

• Exigence: Terrorists hijacked planes and attacked buildings on American soil.
  
  

• Audience: The American people and the attackers.
  
  

• Purpose: Console and unify the public; threaten those responsible.
  More on Exigence vs Context
  
  

ETHOS

Greek for “character.” Speakers appeal to ethos to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy to speak on a given topic.
Example: Gehrig brings the ethos of a legendary athlete but also presents himself as a humble man who shares the audience’s love of baseball and family.
More on Ethos, Pathos, Logos

LOGOS

Greek for “embodied thought.” Speakers appeal to logos, or reason, by offering clear, rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony.
Example: Gehrig supports his statement that he is “the luckiest man on the face of the earth” with two main points: the love he has received and the great people in his life.
More on Ethos, Pathos, Logos

PATHOS

Greek for “suffering” or “experience.” Speakers appeal to pathos to emotionally motivate their audience, often by appealing to their values, hopes, fears, or prejudices.
Example: Gehrig’s diagnosis contrasted with his bravery evokes deep emotional responses.
More on Ethos, Pathos, Logos

KAIROS

Kairos is a rhetorical concept that refers to the opportune or timely moment for persuasion or argumentation. Unlike ethos, pathos, and logos — which focus on content and delivery — kairos emphasizes context and timing.
More on Kairos

OCCASION

The time and place a speech is given or a piece is written.
Example: Gehrig’s speech was delivered during Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day, between games of a doubleheader.

PERSONA

Greek for “mask.” The character or identity a speaker presents to the audience.
Example: Gehrig, though a baseball legend, speaks as a modest and thankful man.
More on Persona

POLEMIC

Greek for “hostile.” A polemic is an aggressive argument that tries to establish the superiority of one opinion over all others, generally without acknowledging opposing arguments.
More on Polemic

PROPAGANDA

The spread of ideas and information to further a cause. In its negative form, propaganda uses rumors, lies, disinformation, or scare tactics to manipulate public opinion.
More on Propaganda

PURPOSE

The goal the speaker wants to achieve.
Example: Gehrig wants to thank his supporters and show that he remains positive, emphasizing gratitude over despair.

REFUTATION

A denial of the validity of an opposing argument. Refutations often follow a concession to appear reasonable.
Example: Gehrig refutes the idea that his bad break is a reason to despair by saying he still has “an awful lot to live for!”

RHETORIC

As Aristotle defined it: “The faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.” In modern terms, it is the art of effective or persuasive communication.

RHETORICAL APPEALS

Techniques used to persuade an audience by focusing on what they find most important:

• Ethos – Character
  
  

• Pathos – Emotion
  
  

• Logos – Logic
  More on Rhetorical Appeals
  
  

RHETORICAL TRIANGLE (ARISTOTELIAN TRIANGLE)

A diagram that illustrates the interrelationship among speaker, audience, and subject in crafting a message.
More on Rhetorical Triangle

SOAPSTONE & SPACECAT

Mnemonic devices that help analyze rhetorical situations:

• SOAPSTone: Speaker, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Subject, Tone
  
  

• SPACECAT: Speaker, Purpose, Audience, Context, Exigence, Choices, Appeals, Tone
  More on SOAPStone & SPACECAT
  
  

SPEAKER

The person or group who creates a text.
Example: In his Farewell Address, the speaker is not just Lou Gehrig the athlete, but also Lou Gehrig the ALS patient and humble man.

SUBJECT

The topic of a text; what it’s about.
Example: Gehrig’s subject is his illness — but also his gratitude and the blessings he has experienced.

SYNTAX

The arrangement of words and phrases in a sentence — including sentence length, punctuation, word order, and patterns.
Why Syntax Matters When Discussing Rhetoric

TEXT

In rhetoric, “text” refers to any cultural product that can be “read” — not just written language but also art, performances, media, fashion, and more. A text is any vehicle for communicating meaning.

STYLE ELEMENTS

Before You Begin

Start by becoming familiar with John F. Kennedy’s inaugural address which provides excellent examples of most of these elements.

ALLITERATION 

Repetition of the same sound beginning several words or syllables in sequence.

Let us go forth to lead the land we love...
— JFK's Inaugural Address

more on alliteration 

ALLUSION

Brief reference to a person, event, or place (real or fictitious) or to a work of art.

Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah...
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more on allusion

ANAPHORA

Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or lines.

...not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need — not as a call to battle, though embattled we are...
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more on anaphora

ANTIMETABOLE 

Repetition of words in reverse order.

Ask not what your country can do for you — ask what you can do for your country.
— JFK's Inaugural Address
I know what I like and I like what I know.
more on antimetabole

ANTITHESIS

Opposition or contrast of ideas in a parallel structure.

We shall... support any friend, oppose any foe...
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more on antithesis

ARCHAIC DICTION 

Old-fashioned or outdated word choice.

"...beliefs for which our forebears fought."
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more on archaic diction

ASYNDETON

Omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases or clauses.

We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe...
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more on asyndeton

CUMULATIVE SENTENCE

Sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning, then adds on.

But neither can two great and powerful groups of nations take comfort from our present course...
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more on cumulative sentences

EPISTROPHE 

Repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses. (Contrast with anaphora)

It was a creed written into the founding documents...: Yes, we can.
...as they blazed a trail...: Yes, we can.
...who pushed westward...: Yes, we can.
...and a king who...: Yes, we can, to justice and equality.
— Barack Obama

HORTATIVE SENTENCE 

Sentence that urges or calls to action, often encouragingly.

Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us.
— JFK's Inaugural Address

Note: Hortative = encouraging; Imperative = commanding

IMPERATIVE SENTENCE 

Sentence used to command or instruct.

My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.
— JFK's Inaugural Address
Get up, stand up, don’t give up the fight.
 

INVERSION 

Reversing the usual subject-verb-object order.

United there is little we cannot do... Divided there is little we can do...
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more on inversion

JUXTAPOSITION

Placing two ideas near each other to emphasize contrast or similarity.

We are the heirs of that first revolution. Let the word go forth... that the torch has been passed to a new generation...
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more on juxtaposition

METAPHOR

Comparing two things without using like or as.

If a beachhead of cooperation may push back the jungle of suspicion...
— JFK's Inaugural Address

OXYMORON

Two contradictory words used together for effect.

"...this peaceful revolution..."
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more oxymorons

PARALLELISM 

Similarity in structure in a pair or series of related words or phrases.

Let both sides explore... Let both sides formulate... Let both sides seek... Let both sides unite...
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more on parallelism

PERIODIC SENTENCE 

Sentence whose main idea is withheld until the end.

To that world assembly of sovereign states... we renew our pledge of support.
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more on periodic sentences

PERSONIFICATION 

Giving human traits to inanimate things or abstract ideas.

"...with history the final judge of our deeds."
— JFK's Inaugural Address

RHETORICAL QUESTION 

A question asked for effect, not meant to be answered.

"Will you join in that historic effort?"
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more on rhetorical questions

SYNECDOCHE 

Using a part to represent the whole.

In your hands, my fellow citizens, more than mine, will rest the final success or failure...
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more on synecdoche

ZEUGMA 

Using a word to apply to two others in different ways — often blending literal and figurative.

Now the trumpet summons us again — not as a call to bear arms... but a call to bear the burden...
— JFK's Inaugural Address
more on zeugma