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Categories: Mud volcanoes | Volcanology | Subduction volcanoes | Petrology | Hydrothermal vents | Volcanic landforms
Ditinjau dan dialihbahasakan ke Indonesia oleh Dr. Hardi Prasetyo, Untuk LUSI LIBRARY: Knowledge Management
Maret 2011
Gambar: Serangkaian gunung lumpur di Gobustan , Azerbaijan
Gambar: Lumpur gunung berapi di Baratang , Kepulauan Andaman . India
Gambar: Gunung lumpur berapi di Teluk Meksiko dasar laut
Gambar: Hidrat-bantalan sedimen, yang sering dikaitkan dengan aktivitas gunung berapi lumpur. Sumber: USGS , 1996.
Fenomena panas bumi yang dikenal sebagai "gunung lumpur" sering bukan merupakan gunung lumpur yang sebenarya. Lihat mudpot untuk informasi lebih lanjut.
Istilah gunung lumpur (mud volcano) atau kubah lumpur (mud dome) digunakan untuk acuan untuk kenampakan –kenampakan yang dibentuk oleh ekstrusi cairan dan gas dari dalam bumi (geo-excreted), meskipun ada beberapa proses berbeda sebagai penyebab aktivitas tersebut.
Air panas bercampur dengan dan endapan permukaan lumpur. Gunung Lumpur yang berkaitan dengan zona subduksi (subduction zone), sekitar 700 diantaranya telah diidentifikasi.
Suhu yang lebih dingin dalam proses ini (mud volcano) bila dibandingkan dengan yang ditemukan pada gunung batuan beku (igneous volcanoes).
Struktur gunung lumpur terbesar berukuran diameter 10 kilometer (6.2 mil) dengan tinggi 700 meter (2.300 kaki).
Sekitar 86% dari gas yang dilepaskan dari struktur ini adalah metana (methane), jauh lebih sedikit karbon dioksida dan nitrogen.
Material dikeluarkan (ejected material) sering menjadi bubur padatan halus tersuspensi dalam cairan (a slurry of fine solids suspended in liquid) yang mungkin termasuk air, yang sering asam (acidic) atau asin (salty), dan cairan hidrokarbon.
Baru-baru ini, lumpur gunung berapi mungkin juga telah diidentifikasi di Mars . [ 1 ]
Sebuah gunung lumpur mungkin merupakan hasil dari struktur pembubungan (piercement structure) dibentuk oleh suatu tekanan dari lumpur diapir (mud diapir) yang menembus (breaches) permukaan bumi (Earth surface) atau dasar laut (ocean bottom).
Suhu mud volcano mungkin serendah titik beku dari bahan yab terlontar, terutama bila saluran (venting) berasosiasi dengan pembentukan endapan hidrokarbon klatrat hidrat (hydrocarbon clathrate hydrate deposits).
Gunung Lumpur sering berasosiasi dengan jebakan minyak (petroleum deposit) dan zona tektonik subduksi (subduction zone) dan jalur pegunungan (orogenic belts); dimana gas hidrokarbon sering disemburkan.
Keberadaannya juga sering dikaitkan dengan lava gunung berapi, (lava volcanoes). Dalam hal kedekatan tersebut, gunung lumpur mengeluarkan gas tahan api (incombustible gases) termasuk helium, sedangkan gunung lumpur tunggal lebih cenderung memancarkan metana (methane).
Sekitar 1.100 gunung lumpur telah diidentifikasi di darat dan di laut dangkal (shallow sea). Diperkirakan bahwa lebih dari 10.000 mungkin ada di lereng benua (continental slope) dan dataran abyssal (abysal plain)
Gryphon : Kerucut dengan curam-lereng (steep-side cone) yang mengekstrusi lumpur lebih pendek dari 3 meter
Lumpur cone (Mud cone): Kerucut tinggi lebih pendek dari 10 meter yang mengekstrusi lumpur dan fragmen batuan
Scoria cone: Kerucut dibentuk oleh pemanasan endapan lumpur selama kebakaran
Salse : Kolam didominasi air dengan rembesan gas
Spring :Didominasi keluaran air lebih kecil dari 0,5 meter
(mud shield): Perisai Lumpur
Emisi
Kebanyakan bahan cair dan padat dilepaskan selama semburan, tetapi berbagai rembesan terjadi selama periode tidak aktif (dormant periods).
Perkiraan orde pertama dari emisi gunung lumpur baru saja dibuat (1 Tg = 1 juta metrik ton).
2002: LI Dimitrov memperkirakan bahwa sebesar 10,2-12,6 Tg/tahun metana telah dilepaskan dari gunung lumpur daratan dan lepas pantai dangkal.
2002: Etiope dan Klusman memperkirakan sedikitnya 1-2 dan paling banyak 10-20 Tg / tahun metana bisa diemisikan (emitted) dari mud volcano di darat (onshore mud volcano).
2003: Etiope, dalam perkiraan berdasarkan 120 gunung lumpur: "Hasil emisi menjadi konservatif antara 5 dan 9 Tg/tahun, yaitu 3-6% dari sumber metana alami (netural methane sources) yang secara resmi dipertimbangkan dalam ketersediaan metana atmosfer (atmospheric methane budget). Total sumber geologi (total geological source), termasuk dari MV (kajian ini), rembesan dari dasar laut (et al Kvenvolden 2001.,), rembesan mikro (microseepage) di daerah keberadaan hidrokarbon dan sumber panas bumi (microseepage in hydrocarbon-prone areas and geothermal sources) (Etiope dan Klusman, 2002), akan berjumlah 35-45 Tg / tahun ". [ 2 ]
2003: Analisis Milkov et al. menunjukkan bahwa masukan gas global (global glas flux) mungkin setinggi 33 Tg / tahun (15,9 Tg / tahun selama periode diam ditambah 17,1 Tg / tahun selama semburan).
Enam teragrams per tahun gas rumah kaca (greenhouse gases) berasal dari gunung lumpur daratan dan lepas pantai dangkal. Sumber air dalam (deep-water sources) dapat memancarkan 27 Tg / tahun. Mungkin total 9% dari fosil CH 4 hilang dalam total ketersediaan CH 4 atmosfer modern (modern atmospheric CH4 budget) , dan 12% dalam akumulasi praindustri (preindustrial budged). [ 3 ]
2003: Alexei Milkov memperkirakan sekitar 30,5 Tg / tahun gas (terutama metana dan CO2) dapat lepas dari gunung lumpur ke atmosfer dan laut. [ 4 ]
2003: J. Achim Kopf memperkirakan 1,97 × 10 -11 sampai 1,23 × 10 -14 m³ metana dilepaskan oleh semua gunung lumpur per tahun, dimana 4,66 × 10 -7 sampai 3,28 × 10 -11 m³ adalah dari gunung berapi permukaan. [ 5 ]
Itu yang mengkonversi untuk 141-88,000 Tg / tahun dari seluruh gunung lumpur, dimana 0,033-235 Tg dari gunung berapi permukaan (surface volcanoes).
Lokasi
Gambar: Dua gunung lumpur di Semenanjung Taman dekat Taman Stanitsa
Gambar: Citra satelit gunung berapi lumpur di Pakistan
Gambar Gunung Lumpur di Gobustan , Azerbaijan
Pada umumnya ada beberapa gunung lumpur di Eropa, tapi puluhan diantaranya dapat ditemukan di Semenanjung Taman dari Rusia dan Semenanjung Kerch dari tenggara Ukraina .
Di Italia , mereka adalah umum di bagian depan utara Apennines dan di Sisilia .
Lain tempat yang relatif dapat diakses di mana gunung lumpur dapat ditemukan di Eropa adalah Berca Lumpur Gunung berapi dekat Berca di Buzau County , Romania , dekat dengan Pegunungan Carpathian .
Pengeboran [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] atau sebuah gempa bumi [ 9 ] [ 10 ] mungkin telah mengakibatkan semburan lumpur Sidoarjo (Sidoarjo mud flow) pada tanggal 29 Mei 2006, di Kecamatan Porong, propinsi Jawa Timur, Indonesia.
Gunung lumpur tersebut mencakup sekitar 440 hektar, 1.087 hektar (4,40 km 2 ) (2.73mi ^ 2), dan menggenangi empat desa, rumah, jalan, sawah padi, dan pabrik-pabrik, menggusur sekitar 24.000 orang dan menyebabkan 14 orang meninggal dunia.
Perusahaan eksplorasi gas terkait yang telah dioperasikan oleh PT Lapindo Brantas dan gempa gempa Yogyakarta 27 Mei 2006 yang mungkin telah memicu (trigerring).
Pada tahun 2008, fenomena tersebut telah disebut sebagai gunung lumpur terbesar dunia (the world’s largest mud volcano) dan menurut ahli geologi yang telah memonitor dan daerah sekitarnya. ia mulai menunjukkan tanda-tanda bencana diakibatkan oleh keruntuhan (catastrophic collapse).
Catastropic collapse tersebut bisa meruntuhkan saluran gunung dan daerah sekitarnya hingga 150 meter (490 kaki), pada dekade mendatang (A catastrophic collapse could sag the vent and surrounding area by up to 150 metres (490 ft) in the next decade.).
Pada bulan Maret 2008, para ilmuwan mengamati terjadinya amblesan hingga 3 meter (9,8 kaki) dalam satu malam.
Sebagian besar amblesan di daerah sekitar gunung lebih bertahap (gradual), sekitar 0,1 cm (0,039 in) per hari.
Sebuah studi oleh sekelompok ilmuwan kebumian (geo-scientist) Indonesia yang dipimpin oleh Bambang Istadi memprediksi daerah yang terkena oleh semburan lumpur selama periode sepuluh tahun. [ 11 ]
Sekarang istilah Lusi - kependekan dari Lumpur Sidoarjo, di mana lumpur adalah kata Indonesia untuk "mud" - gunung lumpur tampaknya menjadi kebersamaan dari hidrokarbon/hidrotermal (hydrocarbon/hydrothermal hybrid).
Banyak gunung lumpur ada di tepi Laut Hitam dan Laut Kaspia . kekuatan Tektonik dan besarnya pengendapan sedimen yang pada akhirnya telah menciptakan beberapa lapangan gunung lumpur (fields of mud volcanoes), banyak diantarany yang memancarkan gas metana dan hidrokarbon lainnya.
Fitur dengan tinggi lebih dari 200 meter (656 kaki) ada di Azerbaijan, dengan semburan besar kadang-kadang memproduksi api dengan skala yang sama (lihat di bawah).
Iran dan Pakistan juga memiliki gunung lumpur di pegunungan Makran di selatan kedua negara.
Bahkan, gunung berapi terbesar dan tertinggi di dunia terletak di Balochistan , Pakistan. [ 12 ]
Artikel utama: Gobustan State Reserve
Azerbaijan dan garispantai Caspian adalah rumah bagi hampir 400 gunung lumpur, lebih dari separuh jumlah seluruh benua.
Pada tahun 2001, salah satu gunung lumpur berukuran 15 kilometer (9 mil) dari Baku membuat berita di seluruh dunia ketika tiba-tiba mulai menyemburkan api mencapai ketinggian 15 meter (49 kaki). [ 13 ]
Di Azerbaijan , semburan didorong dari suatu reservoir lumpur dalam (deep mud reservoir) yang sudah terhubung ke permukaan, bahkan juga terjadi selama periode istirahat (dormant).
Ketika rembesan air masih menunjukkan indikasi berasal dari dalam (deep origin). Seeps memiliki suhu hingga 2 ° C (3.6 ° F) - 3 ° C (5.4 ° F) di atas suhu lingkungan (ambient temperature). [ 14 ]
Ada banyak gunung lumpur di Iran: di provinsi Hormozgan, Provinsi Sistan dan Baluchestan dan provinsi Golestan .
[[Berkas: Lumpur gunung berapi di Jask , Hormozgan provinsi, Iran ]. jpg] Lumpur gunung berapi di Iran
Pulau Baratang, bagian dari Andaman Besar kepulauan di Kepulauan Andaman, Samudera Hindia, memiliki beberapa situs aktivitas vulkanik lumpur. Ada peristiwa letusan yang signifikan di tahun 2003.
Di Pakistan ada lebih dari 80 gunung lumpur aktif, semuanya di provinsi Baluchistan, ada sekitar 10 lokasi yang memiliki kelompok gunung lumpur.
Di barat, Kabupaten Gwadar, gunung lumpur yang sangat kecil dan kebanyakan berkedudukan di selatan Jabal-e-Mehdi terhadap Sur Bandar.
Banyak ada di utara-timur Ormara . Sisanya berada di Kecamatan Lasbela dan tersebar antara selatan Gorangatti di Koh Hinglaj ke Koh Kuk di Utara Miani Hor di Lembah Hangol.
Di daerah ini, ketinggian gunung berapi lumpur berkisar antara 800 sampai 1.550 kaki (243,8-472,4 m).
Yang paling terkenal adalah Chandaragup. Kawah terbesar yang ditemukan pada 25 ° 33'13 .63 "N 65 ° 44'09 .66" E dengan diameter adalah sekitar 450 kaki (137,16 m).
Kebanyakan gunung lumpur di wilayah ini terletak di luar jangkauan daerah-yang memiliki medan sangat sulit.
lumpur gunung berapi tidak aktif (dormant) berdiri seperti kolom lumpur di banyak daerah lain.
Di Turtle Islands, di provinsi dari Tawi-Tawi, tepi barat daya Filipina berbatasan dengan Malaysia, keberadaan gunung lumpur yang jelas pada tiga pulau, Lihiman, Great Bakkungan dan Kepulauan Boan.
Bagian timur laut Pulau Lihiman dibedakan karena jenis semburan liar (violent eruption) dari ekstrusi lumpur (mud extrusions) bercampur dengan potongan batu berukuran besar, sehingga menciptakan kawah lebar 20-m (66 kaki) pada bagian berbukitan dari pulau itu. [ 15 ]
Ekstrusi tersebut dicatat berbarengan terjadinya gempa bumi kecil dan bukti adanya material ekstrusi dapat ditemukan setinggi pohon-pohon sekitarnya. Ekstrusi lumpur bawah laut dari pulau itu, juga telah diamati oleh penduduk setempat. [ 16 ]
Ada juga gunung lumpur di Pantai Arakan di Myanmar (Burma).
Ada dua gunung berapi lumpur aktif di Selatan Taiwan , dan beberapa kerucut yang tidak aktif.
Ada lumpur gunung berapi di pulau Pulau Tiga , di lepas pantai barat negara bagian Malaysia Sabah di Kalimantan.
Sebuah kecelakaan pengeboran lepas pantai Brunei di Kalimantan pada tahun 1979 menyebabkan lumpur panas yang memerlukan 20 relief wells dan hampir 30 tahun untuk menghentikan semburan (to halt eruption).
Gambar: Sebuah panci dingin lumpur di California Utara
Lumpur dingin (cold mud pot) di Glenblair, California
Gambar: Gunung Lumpur Yagrumito di Monagas, Venezuela (6 km dari Maturin)
Gambar: Salah satu dari Devils’s Woodyard Volcano (Hindustan, Trinidad & Tobago)
Gunung Lumpur di benua Amerika Utara meliputi:
Sebuah lapangan kecil gunung lumpur dingin dikontrol sesar terletak di California 's Mendocino Coast dekat Glenblair dan Fort Bragg, California tinggi (<2 meter). Tanah liat berbutir halus kadang-kadang dipanen oleh pembuat pot lokal. [ 17 ]
Shrub and Klawasi mud volcanoes di Copper River basin Pegunungan Wrangell, Alaska . Kebanyakan Emisi CO 2 dan nitrogen, gunung lumpur berhubungan dengan proses magmatik (magmatic processes).
Sebuah gunung lumpur yang tidak disebutkan namanya tinggi 30 meter (98 kaki) dan dengan puncak sekitar 100 meter (328 kaki) lebar, 24 kilometer (15 mil) di Redondo Beach, California, dan 800 meter (2.620 kaki) di bawah permukaan Samudra Pasifik .
Sebuah lapangan kecil (<3 meter (9,8 kaki)) gunung lumpur di Laut Salton daerah panas bumi dekat kota Niland, California. Kebanyakan dengan Emisi CO2 .
Smooth Ridge gunung lumpur dengan diameter 1.000 (3.280 kaki) dekat Monterey Canyon , California .
Gunung lumpur Kaglulik , 43 meter (141 kaki) di bawah permukaan Beaufort Sea, dekat batas utara Alaska dan Kanada. Cadangan minyak bumi (Petroleum deposit) diyakini berada di wilayah tersebut.
Maquinna gunung lumpur, yang terletak 16-18 kilometer (9,9-11 mil) barat Pulau Vancouver, British Columbia, Kanada.
Terdapat banyak gunung berapi lumpur di Trinidad dan Tobago di Karibia, dekat cadangan minyak di bagian selatan pulau Trinidad. Pada tanggal 15 Agustus 2007, gunung lumpur bernama Bouffle Moruga dilaporkan mengeluarkan gas metana yang menunjukkan tanda-tanda adanya aktifitas. Ada juga gunung lumpur lain di pulau tropis yang meliputi:
Devils Woodyard gunung lumpur dekat Hindustan
Moruga Bouffe gunung lumpur dekat Moruga
Piparo gunung lumpur
Chatham gunung lumpur yang terletak di bawah air di Columbus Channel, lumpur panas secara berkala menghasilkan pulau yang hidup dalam waktu yang pendek.
Gambar: Yellowstone's "Mud Volcano" fitur [ 18 ]
Nama Gunung Lumpur Taman Nasional Yellowstone' (Yellowstone National Park's "Mud Volcano"), baik fitur maupun kenampakan dari daerah sekitarnya adalah membingunkan (misleading). Ia terdiri dari mata air panas (hot springs), panci lumpur (mud pots) dan fumarol (fumaroles), daripada suatu wujud dari gunung lumpur yang sebenarnya.
Tergantung pada definisi yang tepat dari istilah gunung lumpur, pembentukan Yellowstone bisa dianggap sebagai cluster dari gunung lumpur hidrotermal (a hydrothermal mud volcano cluster).
Fitur ini lebih kurang aktif dari dalam deskripsi pertama kali tercatat, meskipun daerah ini cukup dinamis.
Yellowstone adalah daerah panas bumi aktif (active geothermal area) dengan dapur magma (magma chamber) berada di dekat permukaan, dan gas aktif terutama uap, karbon dioksida, dan hidrogen sulfida . [ 19 ]
Gunung lumpur di Yellowstone awalnya merupakan suatu gundukan, sampai tiba-tiba, itu merobek sendiri terpisah ke dalam formasi yang dilihat hari ini. [ 20 ]
Bagian timur Venezuela terdapat beberapa gunung lumpur, mereka semua, seperti halnya di Trinidad, memiliki asal yang berkaitan dengan endapan minyak.
Gambar menunjukkan Volcan de Lodo de Yagrumito, sekitar 6 kilometer (3.7 mil) dari Maturin, Venezuela.
Gunung lumpur mengandung, air, gas biogenic (biogenic gas), sejumlah hidrokarbon dan garam dalam jumlah yang bermakna. Sapi dari savana sering berkumpul di sekitarnya untuk menjilat lumpur kering yang mempunyai kandungan garam. Hal tersebut merupakan bagian integral dari diet mereka yang dibutuhkan untuk menghasilkan susu.
Gunung El Totumo , [ 21 ] yang menandai prbatasan antara Negara Bolivar dan Atlantico di Kolombia.
Gunung ini tinggi sekitar 50 kaki (15 m) dan dapat menampung 10 sampai 15 orang di kawah tersebut. Banyak wisatawan dan penduduk lokal mengunjungi gunung lumpur karena manfaat kesehatan dari lumpur (medicinal benefits of mud), gunung lumpur terletak di sebelah cienaga , atau danau.
Gunung lumpur ini sedang dalam pertarungan hukum antara Atlantico dan Departamentos Bolivar karena dari nilai wisata tersebut (tourist value).
Minyak asal Abiogenic (Abiogenic petroleum origin)
gunung Aspal (Asphalt volcano)
Asap hitam (Black smoker)
Rembesan dingin (Cold seep)
Lubang hidrotermal (hydrothermal vent)
Lahar - aliran lumpur (mud flow)
· Hidrat metana (Hydrate methane)
· Pasir gunung (Mud sand)
· Gunung bawah laut (Seamount)
Volcano – Gunung magmatic
· re
1. ^ "Mars domes may be 'mud volcanoes'". BBC. March 26, 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7966437.stm. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
2. ^ Etiope, Giuseppe (2003). "A NEW ESTIMATE OF GLOBAL METHANE FLUX TO THE ATMOSPHERE FROM ONSHORE AND SHALLOW SUBMARINE MUD VOLCANOES". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. pp. 115. "A NEW ESTIMATE OF GLOBAL METHANE FLUX TO THE ATMOSPHERE FROM ONSHORE AND SHALLOW SUBMARINE MUD VOLCANOES". XVI INQUA Congress. http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/inqu/finalprogram/abstract_53365.htm. Retrieved April 20, 2005.
3. ^ Milkov, A. V., R. Sassen, T. V. Apanasovich, and F. G. Dadashev (2003). "Global gas flux from mud volcanoes: A significant source of fossil methane in the atmosphere and the ocean". Geophys. Res. Lett. 30 (2): 1037. doi:10.1029/2002GL016358.
4. ^ "Global Distribution and Significance of Mud Volcanoes". AAPG Annual Meeting 2003: Energy - Our Monumental Task. Archived from the original on November 18, 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20051118210840/http://aapg.confex.com/aapg/sl2003/techprogram/paper_77807.htm. Retrieved April 20, 2005.
5. ^ Achim J. Kopf (2003). "Global methane emission through mud volcanoes and its past and present impact on the Earth's climate". International Journal of Earth Sciences 92 (5): 806–816. doi:10.1007/s00531-003-0341-z. ISSN 1437-3254 (Paper) ISSN 1437-3262 (Online)
6. ^ Davies, R.J., Brumm, M., Manga, M., Rubiandini, R., Swarbrick, R., Tingay, M. (2008). "The East Java mud volcano (2006 to present): an earthquake or drilling trigger?". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 272 (3-4): 627–638.
7. ^ Sawolo, N., Sutriono, E., Istadi, B., Darmoyo, A.B. (2009). "The LUSI mud volcano triggering controversy: was it caused by drilling?". Marine & Petroleum Geology 26: 1766–1784.
8. ^ Sawolo, N., Sutriono, E., Istadi, B., Darmoyo, A.B. (2010). "Was LUSI caused by drilling? – Authors reply to discussion". Marine & Petroleum Geology 27: 1658–1675.
9. ^ Mazzini, A., Svensen, H., Akhmanov, G.G., Aloisi, G., Planke, S., Malthe-Sorenssen, A., Istadi, B. (2007). "Triggering and dynamic evolution of the LUSI mud volcano, Indonesia". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 261 (3-4): 375–388.
10. ^ Mazzini, A., Nermoen, A., Krotkiewski, M., Podladchikov, Y., Planke, S., Svensen, H. (2009). "Strike-slip faulting as a trigger mechanism for overpressure release through piercement structures. Implications for the LUSI mud volcano, Indonesia.". Marine and Petroleum Geology 26(8): 1751–1765.
11. ^ Istadi, B., Pramono, G.H., Sumintadireja, P., Alam, S. (2009). "Simulation on growth and potential Geohazard of East Java Mud Volcano, Indonesia". Marine & Petroleum Geology, Mud volcano special issue 26: 1724–1739.
12. ^ http://pakistaniat.com/2007/03/02/mud-volcanoes-volcano-balochistan-baluchistan-hingol-offroad-makran-pasni-hinglaj/
13. ^ "Azeri mud volcano flares". BBC News. October 29, 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1626310.stm. Retrieved May 13, 2010.
14. ^ S. Planke, H. Svensen, M. Hovland, D. A. Banks, B. Jamtveit (December 2003). "Mud and fluid migration in active mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan". Geo-Marine Letters 23 (3-4): 258–268. doi:10.1007/s00367-003-0152-z.
15. ^ "Geo-physical Features of Philippine Turtle Island". Ocean Ambassadors Track a Turtle. Retrieved on 2010-10-05.
16. ^ "Lihiman Island". Ocean Ambassadors Track a Turtle. Retrieved on 2010-10-05.
17. ^ "Discover northern california". Independent Travel Tours. http://www.gfxedge.com/itt/discover_northern_california.shtml. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
18. ^ NPS, Peaco, 1998
19. ^ "Mud volcano". USGS Photo glossary of volcano terms. Archived from the original on April 4, 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20050404035116/http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/MudVolcano.html. Retrieved April 20, 2005.
20. ^ Whittlesey, Lee (1995) [1995]. Death in Yellowstone: Accidents and Foolhardiness in the First National Park. Lanham, Maryland: Roberts Rinehart Publishers. ISBN 1-5709802-1-7.
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Cold water mud volcanoes created by artesian pressure in Minnesota's Nemadji River basin
Bulletin Of Mud Volcanology Azerbaijan Academy Of Sciences (in English)
Gaia's Breath—Methane and the Future of Natural Gas - USGS, June 2003
Azeri mud volcano flares - October 29, 2001, BBC report
Hydrocarbons Associated with Fluid Venting Process in Monterey Bay, California
Hydrothermal Activity and Carbon-Dioxide Discharge at Shrub and Upper Klawasi Mud Volcanoes, Wrangell Mountains, Alaska - U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 00-4207
Mud volcano floods Java, August 2006
Of Mud Pots and the End of the San Andreas Fault (Seismo Blog)
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Figure: A series of mud volcanoes in Gobustan, Azerbaijan
Figure: Mud volcano in Baratang, Andaman Islands. India
Figure: Mud volcano in the Gulf of Mexico sea bottom
Figure: Hydrate-bearing sediments, which often are associated with mud volcano activity.
Source: USGS, 1996.
The geothermal phenomena known as "mud volcanoes" are often not true mud volcanoes. See mudpot for further information.
The terms mud volcano or mud dome are used to refer to formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, although there are several different processes which may cause such activity.
Hot water mixes with mud and surface deposits. Mud volcanoes are associated with subduction zones and about 700 have been identified.
Temperatures are much cooler in these processes than found at igneous volcanoes.
The largest mud volcano structures are 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) in diameter and reach 700 metres (2,300 ft) in height.[citation needed]
About 86% of the gas released from these structures is methane, with much less carbon dioxide and nitrogen emitted. Ejected materials are often a slurry of fine solids suspended in liquids which may include water, which is frequently acidic or salty, and hydrocarbon fluids.
Recently, possible mud volcanoes have been identified on Mars.[1]
A mud volcano may be the result of a piercement structure created by a pressurized mud diapir which breaches the Earth's surface or ocean bottom.
Their temperatures may be as low as the freezing point of the ejected materials, particularly when venting is associated with the creation of hydrocarbonclathrate hydrate deposits.
Mud volcanoes are often associated with petroleum deposits and tectonic subduction zones and orogenic belts; hydrocarbon gases are often erupted.
They are also often associated with lava volcanoes; in the case of such close proximity, mud volcanoes emit incombustible gases including helium, whereas lone mud volcanoes are more likely to emit methane.
Approximately 1,100 mud volcanoes have been identified on land and in shallow water. It has been estimated that well over 10,000 may exist on continental slopes and abyssal plains.
Gryphon: steep-sided cone shorter than 3 meters that extrudes mud
Mud cone: high cone shorter than 10 meters that extrudes mud and rock fragments
Scoria cone: cone formed by heating of mud deposits during fires
Salse: water-dominated pools with gas seeps
Spring: water-dominated outlets smaller than 0.5 meters
Mud shield
Most liquid and solid material is released during eruptions, but various seeps occur during dormant periods.
First order estimates of mud volcano emissions have recently been made (1 Tg = 1 million metric tonnes).
2002: L.I. Dimitrov estimated that 10.2–12.6 Tg/yr of methane is released from onshore and shallow offshore mud volcanoes.
2002: Etiope and Klusman estimated at least 1–2 and as much as 10–20 Tg/yr of methane may be emitted from onshore mud volcanoes.
2003: Etiope, in an estimate based on 120 mud volcanoes: "The emission results to be conservatively between 5 and 9 Tg/yr, that is 3–6% of the natural methane sources officially considered in the atmospheric methane budget. The total geologic source, including MVs (this work), seepage from seafloor (Kvenvolden et al., 2001), microseepage in hydrocarbon-prone areas and geothermal sources (Etiope and Klusman, 2002), would amount to 35–45 Tg/yr."[2]
2003: analysis by Milkov et al. suggests that the global gas flux may be as high as 33 Tg/yr (15.9 Tg/yr during quiescent periods plus 17.1 Tg/yr during eruptions).
Six teragrams per year of greenhouse gases are from onshore and shallow offshore mud volcanoes. Deep-water sources may emit 27 Tg/yr. Total may be 9% of fossil CH4 missing in the modern atmospheric CH4 budget, and 12% in the preindustrial budget.[3]
2003: Alexei Milkov estimated approximately 30.5 Tg/yr of gases (mainly methane and CO2) may escape from mud volcanoes to the atmosphere and the ocean.[4]
2003: Achim J. Kopf estimated 1.97×1011 to 1.23×1014 m³ of methane is released by all mud volcanoes per year, of which 4.66×107 to 3.28×1011 m³ is from surface volcanoes.[5] That converts to 141–88,000 Tg/yr from all mud volcanoes, of which 0.033–235 Tg is from surface volcanoes.
Figure: Two mud volcanoes on the Taman Peninsula near Taman Stanitsa
Figure: Satellite image of mud volcanoes in Pakistan
Figure: Mud volcanoes in Gobustan, Azerbaijan
There are generally few mud volcanoes in Europe, but dozens can be found on the Taman Peninsula of Russia and the Kerch Peninsula of southeastern Ukraine.
In Italy, they are common in the northern front of the Apennines and in Sicily.
Another relatively accessible place where mud volcanoes can be found in Europe are the Berca Mud Volcanoes near Berca in Buzău County, Romania, close to the Carpathian Mountains.
Drilling[6][7][8] or an earthquake[9][10] may have resulted in the Sidoarjo mud flow on May 29, 2006, in the Porong subdistrict of East Java province, Indonesia.
The mud covered about 440 hectares, 1,087 acres (4.40 km2) (2.73mi^2), and inundated four villages, homes, roads, rice fields, and factories, displacing about 24,000 people and killing 14.
The gas exploration company involved was operated by PT Lapindo Brantas and the earthquake that may have triggered the Mud Volcano was the Yogyakarta earthquake of May 27, 2006.
In 2008, it was termed the world's largest mud volcano and is beginning to show signs of catastrophic collapse, according to geologists who have been monitoring it and the surrounding area.
A catastrophic collapse could sag the vent and surrounding area by up to 150 metres (490 ft) in the next decade. I
n March 2008, the scientists observed drops of up to 3 metres (9.8 ft) in one night.
Most of the subsidence in the area around the volcano is more gradual, at around 0.1 centimetres (0.039 in) per day.
A study by a group of Indonesian geo-scientists led by Bambang Istadi predicted the area affected by the mudflow over a ten year period.[11]
Now named Lusi – a contraction of Lumpur Sidoarjo, where lumpur is the Indonesian word for "mud" – the mud volcano appears to be a hydrocarbon/hydrothermal hybrid.
Many mud volcanoes exist on the shores of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. Tectonic forces and large sedimentary deposits around the latter have created several fields of mud volcanoes, many of them emitting methane and other hydrocarbons.
Features over 200 metres (656 ft) high exist in Azerbaijan, with large eruptions sometimes producing flames of similar scale (see below).
Iran and Pakistan also possess mud volcanoes in the Makran range of mountains in the south of the two countries.
In fact, the world's largest and highest volcano is located in Balochistan, Pakistan.[12]
Main article: Gobustan State Reserve
Azerbaijan and its Caspian coastline are home to nearly 400 mud volcanoes, more than half the total throughout the continents.
In 2001, one mud volcano 15 kilometres (9 mi) from Baku made world headlines when it suddenly started ejecting flames 15 metres (49 ft) high.[13]
In Azerbaijan, eruptions are driven from a deep mud reservoir which is connected to the surface even during dormant periods, when seeping water still shows a deep origin.
Seeps have temperatures up to 2 °C (3.6 °F) - 3 °C (5.4 °F) above the ambient temperature.[14]
There are many mud volcano in Iran: in Hormozgan province, Sistan and Baluchestan Province and Golestan province
[[File:Mud volcano in Jask, Hormozgan province, Iran.jpg]] Mud volcano in Iran
The island of Baratang, part of the Great Andaman archipelago in the Andaman Islands, Indian Ocean, has several sites of mud volcanic activity. There was a significant eruption event in 2003.
In Pakistan there are more than 80 active mud volcanoes, all of them in Baluchistan province; there are about 10 locations having clusters of mud volcanoes.
In the west, in Gwadar District, the mud volcanoes are very small and mostly sit in the south of Jabal-e-Mehdi toward Sur Bandar.
Many more exist in the north-east of Ormara. The remainder are in Lasbela District and are scattered between south of Gorangatti on Koh Hinglaj to Koh Kuk in the North of Miani Hor in the Hangol Valley.
In this region, the heights of mud volcanoes range between 800 to 1,550 feet (243.8 to 472.4 m).
The most famous is Chandaragup. The biggest crater found at 25°33'13.63"N. 65°44'09.66"E is about 450 feet (137.16 m) in diameter.
Most mud volcanoes in this region are situated in out-of-reach areas having very difficult terrain. Dormant mud volcanoes stand like columns of mud in many other areas.
In the Turtle Islands, in the province of Tawi-Tawi, the southwestern edge of the Philippines bordering Malaysia, presence of mud volcanoes are evident on three of the islands - Lihiman, Great Bakkungan and Boan Islands.
The northeastern part of Lihiman Island is distinguished for having more violent kind of mud extrusions mixed with large pieces of rocks, creating a 20-m (66-ft) wide crater on that hilly part of the island.[15]
Such extrusions are reported to be accompanied by mild earthquakes and evidence of extruded materials can be found high up the surrounding trees.
Submarine mud extrusions off the island, have also been observed by local residents.[16]
There are also mud volcanoes at the Arakan Coast in Myanmar (Burma).
There are two active mud volcanoes in South Taiwan, and several inactive ones.
There are mud volcanoes on the island of Pulau Tiga, off the western coast of the Malaysian state of Sabah on Borneo.
A drilling accident offshore of Brunei on Borneo in 1979 caused a mud volcano which took 20 relief wells and nearly 30 years to halt the eruption.
Figure: A cold mud pot in Northern California, showing the scale
Figure: A cold mud pot in Glenblair, California
Figure: Yagrumito Mud Volcano in Monagas, Venezuela (6 km from Maturín)
One of the Devil's Woodyard Volcano (Hindustan, Trinidad & Tobago)
Mud volcanoes of the North American continent include:
A field of small (<2 metres (6.6 ft) high) fault controlled cold mud volcanoes is located on California's Mendocino Coast, near Glenblair and Fort Bragg, California. The fine grained clay is occasionally harvested by local potters.[17]
Shrub and Klawasi mud volcanoes in the Copper River basin by the Wrangell Mountains, Alaska. Emissions are mostly CO2 and nitrogen; the volcanoes are associated with magmatic processes.
An unnamed mud volcano 30 metres (98 ft) high and with a top about 100 metres (328 ft) wide, 24 kilometres (15 mi) off Redondo Beach, California, and 800 metres (2,620 ft) under the surface of the Pacific Ocean.
A field of small (<3 metres (9.8 ft)) mud volcanoes in the Salton Sea geothermal area near the town of Niland, California. Emissions are mostly CO2.
Smooth Ridge mud volcano in 1,000 metres (3,280 ft) of water near Monterey Canyon, California.
Kaglulik mud volcano, 43 metres (141 ft) under the surface of the Beaufort Sea, near the northern boundary of Alaska and Canada. Petroleum deposits are believed to exist in the area.
Maquinna mud volcano, located 16–18 kilometres (9.9–11 mi) west of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.
There are many mud volcanoes in Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean, near oil reserves in southern parts of the island of Trinidad.
As of August 15, 2007, the mud volcano titled the Moruga Bouffle was said to being spitting up methane gas which shows signs that it is definitely active.
There are also several other mud volcanoes in the tropical island which include:
the Devils Woodyard mud volcano near Hindustan
the Moruga Bouffe mud volcano near Moruga
the Piparo mud volcano
the Chatham mud volcano located underwater in the Columbus Channel; this mud volcano periodically produces a short-lived island.
Figure: Yellowstone's "Mud Volcano" feature[18]
The name of Yellowstone National Park's "Mud Volcano" feature and the surrounding area is misleading; it consists of hot springs, mud pots and fumaroles, rather than a true mud volcano.
Depending upon the precise definition of the term mud volcano, the Yellowstone formation could be considered a hydrothermal mud volcano cluster.
The feature is much less active than in its first recorded description, although the area is quite dynamic.
Yellowstone is an active geothermal area with a magma chamber near the surface, and active gases are chiefly steam, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.[19]
The mud volcano in Yellowstone was previously a mound, until suddenly, it tore itself apart into the formation seen today.[20]
The eastern part of Venezuela contains several mud volcanoes, all of them, as in Trinidad, having an origin related to oil deposits.
The image shows the Volcán de lodo de Yagrumito, about 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) from Maturín, Venezuela. Its mud contains, water, biogenic gas, a certain amount of hydrocarbons and an important quantity of salt.
Cows from the savanna often gather around to lick the dried mud for its salt content, which is an integral part of their diet needed to produce milk.
Volcan El Totumo,[21] which marks the division between Bolivar and Atlantico in Colombia.
This volcano is approximately 50 feet (15 m) high and can accommodate 10 to 15 people on its crater; many tourists and locals visit this volcano due to the medicinal benefits of the mud; the volcano is located next to a cienaga, or lake.
This volcano is currently under a legal fight between the Bolivar and Atlantico Departamentos because of its tourist value.
1. ^ "Mars domes may be 'mud volcanoes'". BBC. March 26, 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7966437.stm. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
2. ^ Etiope, Giuseppe (2003). "A NEW ESTIMATE OF GLOBAL METHANE FLUX TO THE ATMOSPHERE FROM ONSHORE AND SHALLOW SUBMARINE MUD VOLCANOES". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. pp. 115. "A NEW ESTIMATE OF GLOBAL METHANE FLUX TO THE ATMOSPHERE FROM ONSHORE AND SHALLOW SUBMARINE MUD VOLCANOES". XVI INQUA Congress. http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/inqu/finalprogram/abstract_53365.htm. Retrieved April 20, 2005.
3. ^ Milkov, A. V., R. Sassen, T. V. Apanasovich, and F. G. Dadashev (2003). "Global gas flux from mud volcanoes: A significant source of fossil methane in the atmosphere and the ocean". Geophys. Res. Lett. 30 (2): 1037. doi:10.1029/2002GL016358.
4. ^ "Global Distribution and Significance of Mud Volcanoes". AAPG Annual Meeting 2003: Energy - Our Monumental Task. Archived from the original on November 18, 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20051118210840/http://aapg.confex.com/aapg/sl2003/techprogram/paper_77807.htm. Retrieved April 20, 2005.
5. ^ Achim J. Kopf (2003). "Global methane emission through mud volcanoes and its past and present impact on the Earth's climate". International Journal of Earth Sciences 92 (5): 806–816. doi:10.1007/s00531-003-0341-z. ISSN 1437-3254 (Paper) ISSN 1437-3262 (Online)
6. ^ Davies, R.J., Brumm, M., Manga, M., Rubiandini, R., Swarbrick, R., Tingay, M. (2008). "The East Java mud volcano (2006 to present): an earthquake or drilling trigger?". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 272 (3-4): 627–638.
7. ^ Sawolo, N., Sutriono, E., Istadi, B., Darmoyo, A.B. (2009). "The LUSI mud volcano triggering controversy: was it caused by drilling?". Marine & Petroleum Geology 26: 1766–1784.
8. ^ Sawolo, N., Sutriono, E., Istadi, B., Darmoyo, A.B. (2010). "Was LUSI caused by drilling? – Authors reply to discussion". Marine & Petroleum Geology 27: 1658–1675.
9. ^ Mazzini, A., Svensen, H., Akhmanov, G.G., Aloisi, G., Planke, S., Malthe-Sorenssen, A., Istadi, B. (2007). "Triggering and dynamic evolution of the LUSI mud volcano, Indonesia". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 261 (3-4): 375–388.
10. ^ Mazzini, A., Nermoen, A., Krotkiewski, M., Podladchikov, Y., Planke, S., Svensen, H. (2009). "Strike-slip faulting as a trigger mechanism for overpressure release through piercement structures. Implications for the LUSI mud volcano, Indonesia.". Marine and Petroleum Geology 26(8): 1751–1765.
11. ^ Istadi, B., Pramono, G.H., Sumintadireja, P., Alam, S. (2009). "Simulation on growth and potential Geohazard of East Java Mud Volcano, Indonesia". Marine & Petroleum Geology, Mud volcano special issue 26: 1724–1739.
12. ^ http://pakistaniat.com/2007/03/02/mud-volcanoes-volcano-balochistan-baluchistan-hingol-offroad-makran-pasni-hinglaj/
13. ^ "Azeri mud volcano flares". BBC News. October 29, 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1626310.stm. Retrieved May 13, 2010.
14. ^ S. Planke, H. Svensen, M. Hovland, D. A. Banks, B. Jamtveit (December 2003). "Mud and fluid migration in active mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan". Geo-Marine Letters 23 (3-4): 258–268. doi:10.1007/s00367-003-0152-z.
15. ^ "Geo-physical Features of Philippine Turtle Island". Ocean Ambassadors Track a Turtle. Retrieved on 2010-10-05.
16. ^ "Lihiman Island". Ocean Ambassadors Track a Turtle. Retrieved on 2010-10-05.
17. ^ "Discover northern california". Independent Travel Tours. http://www.gfxedge.com/itt/discover_northern_california.shtml. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
18. ^ NPS, Peaco, 1998
19. ^ "Mud volcano". USGS Photo glossary of volcano terms. Archived from the original on April 4, 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20050404035116/http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/MudVolcano.html. Retrieved April 20, 2005.
20. ^ Whittlesey, Lee (1995) [1995]. Death in Yellowstone: Accidents and Foolhardiness in the First National Park. Lanham, Maryland: Roberts Rinehart Publishers. ISBN 1-5709802-1-7.
21. ^ http://www.isic.org/sisp/index.htm?fx=event&event_id=29975
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mudpots
Cold water mud volcanoes created by artesian pressure in Minnesota's Nemadji River basin
Bulletin Of Mud Volcanology Azerbaijan Academy Of Sciences (in English)
Gaia's Breath—Methane and the Future of Natural Gas - USGS, June 2003
Azeri mud volcano flares - October 29, 2001, BBC report
Hydrocarbons Associated with Fluid Venting Process in Monterey Bay, California
Hydrothermal Activity and Carbon-Dioxide Discharge at Shrub and Upper Klawasi Mud Volcanoes, Wrangell Mountains, Alaska - U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 00-4207
Mud volcano floods Java, August 2006
Of Mud Pots and the End of the San Andreas Fault (Seismo Blog)