I.  問題の所在Points of Argument

1-1. 既往研究Existing Studies

(1) 水野信太郎『日本煉瓦史の研究』、法政大学出版会、1999年。

(2) 石組みについては不明

1.2. 要点と疑問Summery and Issues

(1) 要点：幕末明治初期における西洋建築導入とは組積造建築を学ぶことであったにもかかわらず、その後組積造は衰退し、第二次世界大戦後はほとんど省みられなくなった。そこで、本書は近代日本で煉瓦がどのように生産されるようになったのかを文献及び現存の調査によって明らかにする。

(2) 疑問点：1862年、長崎に支店を建設するデント商会は、煉瓦造の事務所を建設するが、これについては触れられていない。10年ほど前、イギリス領事館の修理工事の際に、デント商会事務所の基礎が出てきて、それは薄手の煉瓦で、いわゆるこんにゃく煉瓦であった。デント商会は長崎界隈でこの煉瓦を焼かせたとは考えにくいので、香港化上海から持ってきたと思われる。

(3) 横浜外国人居留は開設とともに火事が多発し、そのため外国人は重要な建物を石張り耐火造（Stone Casing）とした。イギリス領事館の報告によれば、日本の在来技術に倣い、1862年に留置場を石張りで作った。木造骨組みの外側に板状の石を貼った。

(4) 1868年7月にイギリスから灯台建設の技術者が来日し、その年、マクヴェインは組積造で官舎を建設した。煉瓦造で角石を配置した。すなわち、イギリス技師団が到着とともに、横浜近傍で煉瓦焼成が始まったと考えれる。

(5) 1872年早々工事が始まった工学寮工学校建物ではグラスゴーから建設資材が輸入された。その中に煉瓦も入っており、同時に近傍で焼成も始まった。外部に見える煉瓦は輸入品だったと考えられる。

(6) 1870年、横浜・新橋間鉄道の建設が始まるが、ここでは煉瓦はほとんど使われなかった。それに引き替え、一年後の1871年暮れに工事の始まる神戸・大阪間鉄道では橋梁などに大々的に煉瓦使われた。斜積みアーチ（ねじりマンボ）も使われた。この違いはどこから来ているのだろうか。

(7) 1872年に工学寮営繕では煉瓦を焼いており、この窯を焼失後銀座再建用の煉瓦焼成につかったのではなかろうか。

(8) 外国人技術者が施工している間は、接合に石灰モルタルが使われポインティング（目地撫で）されたが、日本人の施工になるとセメントモルタルが用いられ、ポインティングがおざなりになったようだ。水を浸透させぜ、煉瓦を守るためにポインティングは絶対必要。

III. 積み方Brick and Bond

(1) 材料Materials

・石材

・煉瓦：日干し煉瓦、焼成煉瓦

・テラコッタ：大判タイル

(2) 積み方laying

・石の形状による区別：荒石（玉石）、切石、

・接着剤使用不使用の区別：基本的に石は接着剤不使用、煉瓦やテラコッタで使用する。

・目地詰めによる区別：荒石積みでも目地を施工することはあるが、基本的に煉瓦の接着剤の表面側に目地詰めを行う。接着剤は煉瓦よりも耐久性が弱いので、目地をしっくい鏝仕上げとする。

(3) 煉瓦の積み方 Bond

・構造物には最低でも長手一枚の幅とする。半枚幅は庭の柵などの軽微なものにしか使わない。

Stretcher, Header

English, English Cross

Flemish

(4) 煉瓦の種類Tyke os Bricks

・イギリスの煉瓦工養成学校の教科書に従えば、

Ordinary Brick：一般構造物に用いる煉瓦で、最小厚さは長手一枚の幅である。１階高くなる毎に半枚分の厚さを加える。

Engineering Brick：橋梁などに用いる煉瓦で、接着剤にも規程がある。

Fire Brick：窯に用いるものである。

IV. 斜積みアーチ

(1) 斜積みアーチの発明Invention of Skew Arch

--これについてはいくつかの先行研究があり、ここで議論はしない。

--See 

(2) 斜積みアーチの鉄道建設への適用Application of Skew Arch into Intercity Railway Construction.

--これに関して、イギリス・シヴィル・エンジニア協会元図書館館長のマイクさんが既往研究をレビューした上で、以下の通り新しい知見を発表しております。

--Mr. Mike's latest argument highlights the role of masonry bridges, particularly of Skew Arch for 1830 Liverpool - Manchester Railways.

Mr. Mike Chrimes's Arguments on Bridge Construction in the 1830 Liverpool - Manchester railways, 2018.

Building Knowledge, Constructing Histories — Wouters, Van de Voorde, Bertels et al. (Eds) © 2018 6ICCH, Brussels, Belgium, ISBN 978-1-138-33230-0, pp457-462.

Innovative or derivative? The design of the bridge structures on the world's first intercity railway between Liverpool and Manchester

Mike Chrimes ICE Panel for Historical Engineering Works London, UK

ABSTRACT:

  The Liverpool and Manchester Railway is well-known as the world's first intercity railway, introducing a global transport revolution. Most research has focused on the triumph of the steam locomotive in the Rainhill trials. In comparison the design and construction of the civil engineering infrastructure have been neglected. The line featured over 60 bridges and viaducts. This paper considers the relative role of George Stephenson, the railway's Engineer, his assistants and external consultants in developing the designs, identifying where there was innovation. The Railway was a prototype and its methodology for bridge design was unsustainable for the main phase of railway construction.

リバプール・マンチェスター間鉄道世界最初の都市間鉄道であり、地球的な交通革命を起こしたことで有名である。多くの研究は、レインヒルの試練において蒸気機関車がどのように勝利を収めたのかのかに焦点を当ててきた。それに引き替え、構造物社会基盤のデザインと建設は無視されてきた。この路線は60を越える橋梁と水路橋によって特徴付けられる。本稿はジョージ・スティヴンソンの関係役割を検討し、どこに確信があったのかを明らかにしようというものである。鉄道は一つのプロトタイプであり、そして橋梁デザインの方法は鉄道建設の主要段階において持続的ではなかった。

Keywords: 19th century, British Isles, Bridges, Project Management, Consulting Engineers

1 INTRODUCTION

  The opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830 remains an iconic moment in the creation of the modern world. It was the world's first main line 'intercity' railway, and the Chief Engineer, George Stephenson, has rightly been seen as a genius (Smiles 1862, Ross 2010). The success of the steam locomotive has overshadowed the civil engineering achievement. That design is generally attributed to George Stephenson, but in most cases the detailed bridge design should, as discussed further below, be credited to Jesse Hartley or Stephenson's assistants.

2 THE ORIGINS OF THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY PROJECT

3 PROJECT ORGANISATION

4 THE ENGINEERING STAFF ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY

4.1 Project management structure

4.2 Supervisors

5 THE BRIDGES

5.1 Masonry bridges

5.2 Design methods

5.3 Skew or oblique arches

5.4 Use of timber

5.5 Use of structural ironwork

5.5.1 Water street bridge (Fitzgerald 1980)

5.6 Masonry bridge construction

5.6.1 Newton bridge

5.6.2 Sankey viaduct

5.6.3 Rainhill bridge

5.6.4 Irwell Bridge 

6 WHO DESIGNED THE BRIDGES? 

6.1 The role of Jesse Hartley

7 CONCLUSIONS

   In general the bridges on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway represent good 1820s practice, and the work of Stephenson, Hartley, and Stephen-son's young team. The innovative use of iron at Water Street was typical of Stephenson's ability to adopt the latest advances in engineering technology. The many skew arch bridges anticipated their widespread use on the railways of the 1830s. Ultimately George Stephenson was the Engineer.

   Where detailed work was the result of his assistants' efforts he deserves credit for delegation. When Hartley was employed, it was in recognition of Stephenson's limited experience in bridge engineering, the Directors determination to employ the best talents available, and the limited time Stephen-son had to provide both functioning locomotive traction and structures fit for purpose.

   The whole engineering team should share the credit for Tel-ford's assessment that the masonry on the line had been 'performed in a very perfect manner.' (Telford 1829). The project management style was rarely followed. The young engineers who worked with George Stephenson learned that lesson well, pre-pared detailed specifications and drawings, and employed capable contractors.

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