Chapter IX. Evaluation of ICE工部大学校の評価
9-1. "Nature"
(1) 'AN ENGINEERING COLLEGE IN JAPAN.' NATURE, April 3, 1873.
The Japanese Government, as represented by the ambassadors who visited this country last summer and autumn, have resolved upon taking example by our western civilization, and establishing a college in the city of Yeddo for affording instruction in civil and mechanical engineering to the youth of Japan, as a strong desire has arisen in that country to make an effort to develop the great natural resources which it is known to possess. Our advice and practical assistance in the establishment of the college have been called into requisition, owing to the ambassadors having observed during their sojourn amongst us, how intimately our eminent industrial status as a nation is dependent upon the attention which we devote to the cultivation of those sciences which are involved in the mining, metallurgical, engineering, and many manufacturing industries, and in bringing the forces of nature under the influence of man.
The general scheme of the instruction has been devised by one of our eminent engineers, a gentleman whose experience of Continental and British systems of instruction is very extensive and varied, and judging from the appointment already made, it is evident that the professorial equipment of the college will devolve upon this country. The principal of the college, who is also to be the professor of engineering and mechanics, is Mr. Henry Dyer, M. A. B. Sc., who studied at the University of Glasgow, under the late Prof. J. M. Rankine, Sir William Thomson, and their colleagues. Mr. Dyer was a Whitworth Scholar, and his career hitherto has been one of great and well deserved success. He is well qualified to act as principal of the Yeddo Engineering College.
Prof. Dyer is to be assisted in his duties in the Japanese College of Engineers by professors of mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, geology, and mineralogy, and by teachers of English, &c. At least two important appointments have been made, namely, to the professorship of mathematics and to the professorship of natural philosophy. The former has been conferred on Mr. D. H. Marshall, at present assistant to Prof. P. G. Tait in Edinburgh University ; and the latter is to be filled by Mr. W. E. Ayrton, formerly of University College, London, and the University of Glasgow. The last-named gentleman has already been employed in the East Indian telegraphic service, and he is at present assistant-engineer in connection with the manufacture of the Great Western Telegraph Cable under Sir William Thomson and Prof. Fleeming Jenkin.
In connection with this Engineering College there are several other points of importance that may be stated. It is intended to institute a geological survey of Japan, and not improbably the active superintendence of that work will devolve upon the gentleman who may ultimately be appointed to the professorship of geology and mineralogy. As an important adjunct to the College, there will be erected a technical workshop, fitted with steam-engine, machine tools, and all the necessary appliances for familiarizing the young Japanese engineers with the principles of construction, &c. There will a’so be a technological museum for the illustration of the progressive stages of various industrial processes from the raw materials to the finished products.
(2) 'ENGINEERING EDUCATION IN JAPAN,' NATURE〔May 17, 1877〕p.44-45.
The technical education of engineers is a subject which has engaged public attention for a long time past and is one of great national importance. It is somewhat singular that this country , foremost as it has always been in matters of engineering enterprise, should be so behindhand in the systematic education of its engineers, there being no establishment in England devoted to that object which is recognised by the profession. Under the system that has been in vogue up to a comparatively recent period a youth intended for an engineer is taken from school at the age of sixteen being thereby deprived of the most valuable years of his education, and placed in some engineering manufactory, where he remains, perhaps, till he is twenty. In those four years his so called “training”consists in going through the manual routine of the various workshops and “picking up”what knowledge he can by keeping his eyes open and living on good terms with the workmen.
His last year is usually spent in the drawing-office, where, by a similar process of “picking up,”he learns how to draw if not to design machinery or works of construction. At the end of that time his education is supposed to be complete, and he either remains as a draughtsman until something better is offered him, or he enters the office of another engineer for the purpose of improvement. All this time the far more important theoretical training is neglected altogether, no classes or examinations are held, no lectures or other instructions are given, and though some few energetic young men in some way make up this loss by private study they are a great exception, and the hours of manual work are usually so heavy (from 6 A.M. till 5 P.M.) as to render working in the evening both fatiguing and unprofitable. The Continental system goes to the other extreme, teaching the theory and discarding the practice.
This system is as bad as the other, for experience has shown that in engineering works a practical man without scientific training seldom makes such serious blunders as a scientific man without practical experience. It can only be by a judicious combination of the two systems, allowing science and practical experience to work hand in hand together in the education of an engineer that the best results can be looked for, and in these days of close competition, not only between man and man, but between country and country, It is of the utmost importance to a nation that its engineers should be instructed upon the best and soundest principles. The Indian Government recognised this when it established the Royal Indian Engineering College at Cooper’s Hill for the systematic training of engineers for the Public Works Department of India ; and it is remarkable that the profession of engineering should stand alone in England as having no recognised Alma Mater of its own. Many years ago an engineering college was established at Putney upon a good system, but it was badly managed, and after becoming a nuisance to the neighbourhood, was ultimately shut up ; at the present time, with the exception of the technical classes at the Crystal Palace and at King’s College, which, in a small way, are doing good work, there is no institution in this country devoted to the education of engineers.
While England is so far behindhand in this important question, a great work has been done by the Japanese Government in the establishment of an Imperial College of Engineering at Tokei, an institution which gives to its students a highly scientific training, combined with actual practical experience in engineering workshops which give employment at the present time to over three hundred workmen, but which are being largely increased and are turning out all classes of engineering work.
The system adopted is as follows : The course of training extends over six years.
The first two years are spent entirely at college ; during the next two years, six months of each year are spent at college and six months in the practice of that particular branch which the student may select ; the last two years are spent entirely in practical work. The system of instruction in the college is partly professorial and partly tutorial, consisting in the delivery of lectures and in assistance being given to the students in their work.
Candidates for admission must be Japanese subjects under the age of twenty, and must pass a preliminary examination, the best fifty being chosen as cadets, of which there are two classes. A student may elect to enter either as a Government cadet in which case all his expenses are defrayed by Government, under whom he binds himself to serve for seven years at the expiration of his six years’ training or he may enter as a private cadet, paying his own expenses, in which case the obligation to serve subsequently under Government is dispensed with. In all other respects he is on the same footing as the Government cadet.
The whole system of training may be divided into three courses : (1) General and Scientific, (2) Technical, and (3) Practical. The general and scientific course, which is taught during the first two years, includes (1) English language and composition, (2) geography, (3) elementary mathematics, (4) elementary mechanics, (5) elementary physics, (6) chemistry, and (7) mechanical drawing.
The Technical course consists of the following branches of engineering : (1) Civil engineering, (2) mechanical engineering, (3) telegraphy, (4) architecture, (5) chemistry and metallurgy, and (6) mining. This course is taught during the third and fourth years of the curriculum. The practical course, in which the students are engaged during the last two years in the practice of the special branch each may have selected, consists of working in the laboratories of the college, and in the engineering works connected with it established at Akabane, where they serve a regular engineering apprenticeship.
While this course is going on lectures on special subjects are given, and the students are required to prepare reports upon the work in which they have been engaged.
In the Technical course are included the higher mathematics and natural philosophy, engineering, civil and mechanical, geology, mineralogy, surveying, naval architecture, strength of materials, practice in the chemical, physical, metallurgical, and engineering laboratories, and in the drawing office and workshops. The main building, which is a very handsome structure, consists of a central portion containing the large examination hall and library, drawing offices and class rooms, and on each side of this extends a wing containing other class rooms and lecture halls.
This is the College proper, and surrounding it are separate buildings set apart for the dormitories, Professors’ houses, museum and laboratories of which there are four devoted respectively to chemistry, physics, metallurgy, and engineering. The buildings have been very admirably arranged by the Principal of the College, Mr. Henry Dyer, C. E., and the architectural details have been carried out with great skill by Mr. C. A. de Boinville. The staff of the College consists of a Principal and nine English Professors, assisted by Japanese teachers, and the Institution is under the jurisdiction of the Minister of Public Works. A calendar of the College is published annually, which contains information relative to the admission of students, courses of study, and examination papers, as well as catalogues of the splendid collection of instruments in the laboratories, and of the books in the library, which seems to be exceptionally rich in almost every branch of general and scientific literature.
C. W. C.
9-2. Edward C. Robins from viewpoint of Design of Buildings for Technical Education技術教育としての建築デザイン
(1) Buildings for secondary educational purposes, by Edward Cockworthy Robins
The Builder, April 10 and 17, 1880.
The Physical Department of the Imperial College of Engineering at Yedo, Japan.
From the particulars given to me by Professor Ayrton, I have been enabled to prepare a ground plan of the department of which he was professor, and it is no small satisfaction to me, as a member of the Executive Committee of the City and Guilds Technical Institute, that his able services have been secured to develop the physics classes at Cowper-street, for which costly buildings are in course of realization, such as it is hoped may give full play to his talents, to the great advantage of the youth and working classes of the City of London.
Room No.1 is the demonstration-room, 50ft. square, and occupying the whole height of this portion of the building. It was fitted up in the following manner: — On a level with the first floor, a gallery about 3 ft. wide ran round the whole room, from which wires and other apparatus were suspended for experiment; it also gave access tot he shutters by which the upper windows could be closed to darken the room for optical and other experiments. The students’ benches occupied the centre of the room, and around three sides of the room, next the walls on the ground-floor level, were instrument and working cases, the under-side of the gallery being utilized for cupboards, entered from behind.
Room No.2 is the general laboratory, fitted up with instrument cases, covered in working-cases, the tables being on concrete foundations, and uncovered instrument cases on brick piers.
Room No.3 is the Professor’s private room and private laboratory.
Room No.4 is the instrument-room.
Room No.5 and 6 are for electrical experiments, No.5 being fitted up with six brick pillars, each about 2 ft. square, and descending 6 ft. into the ground. No.& has long tables on brick piers.
Room No.7 is the lavatory attacked to the laboratory, for washing bottles, & C.
Room No.8 is a small, artificially-dried room, in which experiments with frictional electricity could be conveniently performed.
On the first-floor, which extended over all but the demonstration-room, were rooms for experiments on light, a small class-room for the teaching of applied physics, rooms for special experiments, store-closets, and the battery-room. The detail drawing, which I have had prepared from these made by Professor Ayrton, are exceedingly interesting sf valuable on account of their originality, and because they have took the test of use in the college at Yedo.
Fitting in Demonstration-room. — The sloping platform, or students’ gallery, is shown on the drawings, and in the side sectional view I have indicated in dotted lines the brick piers which sustain the students’ tables distinct from the general flooring, so as to be quite free from vibration. There si also a front, back, and top view of the students’ bench, and a section showing thinks and gas-fittings. By this special arrangement of students’ benches (which is believed to be unique of its kind), it was possible for the students, without leaving their places, to repeat the experiments made by the Professor during the lecture, with apparatus placed ready for them on these firm benches. Between the lectures, these benches or tables could be utilized as part of the laboratory proper.
Illustrations are also given of the instrument cases, with folding-doors and glass panels, as arranged around a portion of the demonstrating-room, which are also used in the laboratory.
Details are shown of the Professor’s lecture-table in this room, resting on a platform, the whole of which was sustained on a concrete foundation distinct from the general flooring, and its fittings include a pneumatic trough sink.
Fitting in the Laboratory. — Besides the instrument cases, the drawing also exhibit the working cases, the drawings also exhibit the working cases, furnished with glazed sash windows, as used in the general laboratory and in the Professor’s private laboratory. The tables in the cases rested on a concrete foundation, quite distinct from the flooring, to avoid the transmission of vibrations; so that except where the sash was closed, after work, to exclude dust or meddling fingers, no part of the case rested on the table, there being no connection between the table carrying the apparatus and the floor, on which rested the sash-frames and glazed inclusive, and on which the experimenter stood. With such working cases a delicate investigation could be carried on from day to day, the apparatus being always ready whenever the experimenter had leisure to work at it. Some of the working cases, so enclosed and fitted with window-sashes to exclude dust, & C., not being required for very delicate experiments likely to be spoiled by small vibrations, stood upon the common floor, without concrete foundations. There is the charm of novelty in these arrangements, so far as I know, and of the following fitting for the battery-room.
Battery-Room, — Illustrations are given of these designs as carried out in the aforesaid Technical College of Yeddo, under Professor Ayrton’s direction. Accommodation was provided for about 200 Gove’s cells and 300 Daniell’s, used for general electrical work and for the electrical testing of the students of telegraph engineering. The peculiarity of these special fitting was that all the cells were under glazed covers, and, therefore, dust was excluded; yet all the cells were visible, dust was excluded; yet all the cells were visible, and all obnoxious gases were led up the flues; the cells were easily got at by opening any portion of the double-hinged cover. When taking a Grove’s battery apart, after use, the zincs were put at once into the long, narrow leaden sink, immediately in front of the battery-stand; and the porous cells to soak in the long leaden sinks immediately behind the operator. After soaking, the porous cells were put on the racks to dry, and were ready for use within reach of the operator putting up the battery on the next occasion.
Of Professor Ayrton’s drawing I have seen ten, and of these I have chosen the most interesting examples. It is to be observed that the fittings of the physical department at Yeddo were contrived to enable the students to learn by advancing the bounds of knowledge, and not merely by assimilating editing information, as in evidenced by numerous published accounts of original research conducted in that laboratory; and it is this method of teaching which has given to Professor Ayrton the prestige which he enjoys.
The Builder, August 4, 1880
IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
JAPAN.
SIR,-My attention has been called to a paper by Mr. E. C. Robins, entitled “Buildings for Secondary Educational Purposes,” which appeared in the Builder of the 10th and 17th of April last. In this paper Mr. Robins dwells at length on the excellence of the arrangements in the Physical Department of the Imperial College of Engineering of Tokio (Yedo), Japan, and on the satisfactory results obtained there.
The writer at the same time gives a plan and detail drawings of the same, and I must express my surprise that an architectural paper such as the Builder should publish drawings of a new building and its fittings without the signature or sanction of the architect.
It may not be generally known that the Japanese Government, while behaving with great liberality to their foreign employés, are averse to the publication of any of the designs made by those in their employ. This, you will understand, is a sufficient reason in itself to explain why I should object to any drawings of public buildings I have de signed being published. The writer of the paper is perhaps not aware, when giving Mr. Ayrton sole credit for using benches fitted up so that the pupils can repeat the experiments made by the professor, “which is believed to be unique of its kind,”—that others before him employed the same means for instructing their pupils (Professor Williamson, of King's College, for example).
Before the Physical Department Buildings were thought of, the chemical class-room of the Imperial College of Engineering was fitted up with similar benches.
As much, if not more, credit is due to the principal, Mr. Henry Dyer, and to Dr. Divers, the Professor of Chemistry, than to Mr. W. E. Ayrton, for the happy results which that gentleman's friends would claim for him alone.
C. A. CHAstEL DE BoINVILLE,
Architect to the Board of Public Works of Japan.
11, Yamato Yashiki Tokio (Yedo), Japan,
18th June, 1880
The Builder, Aug.28, 1880
THE COLLEGE FITTINGS AT YEDO, JAPAN.
Sir,—I have seen the letter of M. De Boinville, taking exception to the good opinion I have formed of the Physical College fittings at Yedo, which were suggested by Professor Ayrton, and ably carried out by the architect.
Dr. Williamson, of University College, who took the chair at my lecture (but who is not a professor of Kind's College), admitted the original character of the fittings to which I referred, so far as he knew, and I have said no more.
I am not aware that I have given any privileged information, or described anything not justified by the subject under discussion. I certainly did not wander awav into a description of the architectural excellences of the buildings forming the College at Japan, nor did I allude to any defects ; but I simply drew the attention of the audience to a class of specially designed fittings in one department only, the particulars of which were given to me by their originator, though not their executor, and I still think them highly creditable to both, and to the enterprising founders of a technical college the like of which is scarcely equalled out of Japan.
Edw. C. Robins.
Architecture of Science edited Galison and Emily Thompson, the MIT Press, 1999
8. Bricks and Bones: Architecture and Science in Victorian Britain by Sophie Forgan, p.184
a contrasting sort of practice and career may be seen in the architect Edward Cookworthy Robins(1830-1918), who specialized in the technical requirements of scientific buildings and laboratories in particular, publishing in 1887 Technical School and College Building. This manual included a great deal of information on foreign laboratories and provided a compendium of up-to-date wisdom. He became involved in the design of Britain’s first technical college, the Finsbury College, and was a devoted supporter of the T.H. Huxley, whose fame and campaign for technical education was at its height in the late 1870s and early 1880s.
The development of the laboratory: essays on the place of experiments in industrial civilization, edited and introduced by Frank A.J. James, Macmillan press, 1989.
p.159
included laboratories and workshops for mechanics and chemistry teaching. it was Clifton who was initially given the task of designing a cheep two-story laboratory complex for the City & Guilds, to supplement the school’s facilities.
Well over 100 students — bankers, builders, engineers, insurance company clerks, chemists and druggists — attended Ayrton’s and Armstrong’s classes in the first few months. Armed with this evidence, and with the support of Robins, who was acting in his capacity as the Dyer’s Company architect and surveyor, Ayrton and Armstrong were able to persuade the City and Guilds to erect a much larger and better-equipped building in the school’s playground on Tabernacle Raw (now Leonard Street). The Drapers’ Company gave 10,000 for the purpose. As Ayrton later acknowledged., it was because Robins ‘strenuously exerted himself to further technical education in Finsbury, that the carious electrical, physical and mechanical laboratories now in Leonard Street, Finsbury became in to existence’.Indeed, it was Robins’s report to the Guides on 31 December 1880, in which he over-optimistically argued that a middle-grade technical school for engineering and applied art could be erected in the Cowper Street school grounds for 12,000, that persuaded the Guilds to proceed.
The foundation stone of England’s first technical college was laid at Finsbury by Queen Victoria’s youngest son, Leopold, in May 1881. However the building was not ready for use until February 1883, because legal, labour and cash-flow problems caused delays.
Notable Teachers at Finsbury Technical College and the Central Technical College.
Posted 12 June 2011 by Richard & filed under Biographies & Pen Portraits.
H. Armstrong (1848-1937), W.Ayrton (1847-1908), J. Perry (1850-1920) and S. Thompson (1851-1926).
Two pioneering technical institutions namely Finsbury Technical College (Leonard Street) and the Central Institution (South Kensington) – (see this website for pen portraits) attracted some remarkable individuals. Both these institutions were the result of the creation of the City and Guilds Institute for the Advancement of Technical Education (CGLI). Finsbury Technical College came to be seen as the feeder to the Central Institution which had a focus on higher education provision. The practical work developed at Finsbury was later expanded and enhanced at the Central Institution because of its well equipped and modern laboratories.
The brief biographies of four of the teachers involved at the two institutions are given below. These four remarkable individuals all ahead of their time and their ideas on how to teach mathematics, science and technical subjects was truly amazing and still have relevance today. If only their ideas had been implemented on a larger scale the parlous state of technical and scientific education and training could have been dramatically improved. They all had to deal at times with traditional and entrenched attitudes associated with the supposed superiority of academic studies and subjects over technical ones.
Henry E Armstrong
Born in Lewisham in 1848 and educated at the Royal College of Chemistry, (now the department of Chemistry at Imperial College). Between 1865 and 1867 studying under Edward Frankland who had succeeded Hofmann as Professor of Chemistry. During this time he attended lectures by such notable scientists as Thomas Huxley, William Ramsay and John Tyndall. These experiences established an independent thinking, confident and brilliant chemist. Frankland suggested that Armstrong continued his studies and research with Hermann Kolbe another famous chemist based at the University of Leipzig, Germany. During this period he visited and worked at Berlin and Dresden Universities and completed his studies and dissertation in 1870. After three years in Germany, (1867 to 1870), he returned to England and was appointed lecturer in chemistry at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital in 1870. Henry was appointed Professor of Chemistry at the London Institution in 1871. He worked with William Ayrton at the Cowper Street Schools which later became the Finsbury Technical College and then Professor of Chemistry at the Central Technical College which later became the City and Guilds College between 1884 and 1913 (see biographies on this website).
Amongst other achievements he established a three- year diploma programme in chemical engineering arguing as did his other enlightened colleagues ‘that there was an urgent need for a more scientific attitude of mind among British industrialists.’ When he was appointed with William Ayrton, as the first professors at Finsbury Technical College they both shared the same view that examinations must not drive the teaching and learning process. This view was also held by other teachers such as John Perry and Philip Magnus. They all believed that teachers must have liberty of action and fortunately they were at that time supported by the committees of CGLI.
(Comment: Sadly currently examinations and continuous assessment regimes dominate the education system in many countries and particularly in England. This culture has made the awarding bodies become businesses driven by the market and are now more interested in implementing questionable government education policies and making money. Education and all the associated elements e.g. examinations should not be a hardnosed business enterprise based on market forces.)
In addition to being a notable chemist Henry was also an outstanding person in the teaching of science particularly active in this field during the last two decades of the 19th century. He was dis-satisfied with science teaching methods in schools. He strongly argued that pupils should be allowed to discover things for themselves and in a sense be in the position of the original experimenter and observer. His particular method of teaching became known as the heuristic method and was introduced at St. Dunstan’s College where he was a governor. This method has influenced science ever since, although the inevitable constraints of time modified its basic premises. His criticisms also helped to motivate science teachers and reduced the possibility of them becoming complacent. His ideas of on science teaching closely parallels those of John Perry on mathematics teaching. The Nuffield programmes in science were greatly influenced by their ideas. He was president of the Chemical Society from 1893 to 1895 and Emeritus Professor at Imperial College, London.
His obituary stated he was the major figure in chemistry and science education during two generations possessing a rare gift of expression and writing. He died in 1937.
References: Praagh. G. Van. (Ed) ‘Henry Armstrong and Science Education.’ Selection from the Teaching of Scientific Method by Armstrong. H. E. John Murray. ISBN 0 7195 2893 3. 1973.Eyre. J. V. ‘Henry Armstrong, 1848-1937. Butterworth Scientific Publications. London. 1958
William E Ayton
William Edward Ayrton was born in London in 1847 and studied at University College School and University College London where he passed with honours the first ever Bachelor of Arts at the University of London in 1867. After this he studied in Glasgow during the late 1860s with Lord Kelvin. He later worked for the Indian Government Telegraphic Service between 1868 and 1873 after gaining the highest grade in their examinations. Between 1873 and 1878 he was Professor of Natural Philosophy and Instructor in the Imperial College of Engineering in Tokyo, Japan. In both these appointments he made fundamental discoveries in fault detection systems in high tension electrical transmission lines and introduced electric lighting to Japan in 1878. He was a brilliant physicist, electrical engineer, pioneer of electrical engineering and teacher making many important discoveries and inventions both with joint collaborators and alone. He published extensively again alone and jointly on engineering and scientific disciplines particularly in their application in such areas as electrical technology and its measurement e.g. inventing with John Perry the dynamometer, the first electric tricycle, railway electrification, various ammeters and the wattmeter. He was the first to advocate high power electricity transmission. His career often crossed with that if John Perry (see below). He and Perry published 70 important scientific and technical papers between 1876 and 1891. He worked with Perry in Japan, Finsbury College, Central College and Imperial College.
On his return from Japan he took up a number of key appointments at the City and Guilds of London Institute in 1879, professor of applied physics at the Finsbury Technical College in 1881 and in 1884 professor of electrical engineering at the Central Institution at Kensington. In addition he was an outstanding teacher often using his own apparatus and inventions in the classes to demonstrate the concepts and processes. Both he and John Perry (see below) believed that teaching must be accessible to students and equally importantly with an emphasis on practical work. He believed that a machines workshop/facility was essential to effective teaching and learning and that an emphasis on practical work linked to lectures was crucial. The first year course comprised the core subjects of chemistry, mechanics, mathematics and physics and was offered both at the Finsbury Technical College and the Central Institution in order to lay strong foundations to students’ technical studies.
While teaching at Finsbury College he met and later married in 1885 Hertha (Sarah) Marks (see her biography on this website). In 1892 he became President of the institute of Electrical Engineers (IEE) and in 1896 was a member of the editorial committee of the Science Abstracts of the IEE. He died in 1908.
References: Chisholm. H. (ed). ‘William Edward Ayrton.’ Encyclopaedia Britannica. 11th Edition. CUP. 1911 Institute of Engineering and Technology Archives Biographies. The National Archives and various Dictionaries and Encyclopaedia of Science and Technologies.
John Perry
Born in Londonderry, Ireland and studied at Queens College, Belfast. He left school early to support himself and worked as an apprentice at the Lagan Foundry from 1864 to 1870. During the last three years of his apprenticeship he studied Engineering at Queen’s College on what we would now call a sandwich course. In 1870 he took up a teaching post in mathematics and science at the boys’ laboratory and workshop. Whilst studying and as a result of all this pressure he began to lose his sight. However his sister used to read text books with him and he became fascinated with the electrical sciences. Later he became interested in steam power and a book he wrote became the seminal text for the US navy. He became a gifted mathematician and pioneering engineer. He taught at Clifton College, Bristol leaving in 1874 to study a year under William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in a small laboratory in Glasgow. He then emigrated to Japan and took an appointment as Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the newly established Imperial College of Engineering, Tokyo, (then the largest technical institution in the world), where he worked with William Ayrton. They collaborated very successfully on problems associated with applied electricity. They also introduced some novel methods of teaching mathematics and engineering. One often cited technique was the use of graph (or squared) paper as a method of teaching and analysing functional innovations relationships in mechanics and electricity. They used this technique in Tokyo and at Finsbury Technical College. This teaching technique was to become one of the defining features and innovations at the Finsbury College which are now referred to as the ‘Finsbury Method’.
On his return to England he was appointed Professor of Engineering and Mathematics at Finsbury Technical College in 1879, again joining William Ayrton and then in 1896 became Professor of Mathematics and Mechanical Engineering at the Central Institution. He retired from the Central Institution in 1914 but continued his work advising the British military on gyroscopic compasses. Mathematics to Perry was a branch of science being ’merely an inductive science based on experience’. One of his guiding rules was ‘that we ought to use, as illustrations, those things with which the pupils have most to do (and) must begin in the middle of the subject, working backwards and forwards. He was elected President of the Institute of Electrical Engineering in 1900 and was President of the Physical Society (later the Institute of Physics) from 1906 to 1908. Like Ayrton is believed in teaching science and engineering from a practical point of view. John Perry was a remarkable teacher who encouraged his students to develop a wider set of interests such as reading novels, taking an interest in literature and especially a greater emphasis in mathematics in order to move away from the rather narrow technically training and instruction that was dominant at the time. He attracted controversy and criticism from the academic mathematics community by publishing a book entitled ‘Calculus for Engineers’, It treated the subject as a purely practical tool e.g. there as an absence of abstract reasoning and presented a simplistic set of rules on differentiation and integration. The book maintained a focus on practical applications to electricity, mechanics and thermodynamics. He used the same approach to such subjects as algebra, arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry etc. He reinforced his ideas by publishing extensively from 1880 arguing strongly for major reform of teaching mathematics – sadly we are still waiting for such reforms considering the parlous state of mathematics teaching in England and some of the home countries! Indeed a man well ahead of his time.
However his ideas were picked up by the newly created Board of Education (BoE) that had succeeded the Science and Art Department in 1899 and it incorporated some of his ideas and techniques into an examination called ‘Practical Mathematics’. Following the creation of an educational section within the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) in 1900 Perry organised a series of discussions groups at the 1901 Glasgow meeting on themes associated with the teaching of elementary mathematics in military, secondary and technical education. The meeting highlighted the massive divisions between the academic approach of teaching i.e. the formal study of mathematics for its own sake as opposed to its practical applications and the essential importance of its utility that Perry was advocating. Interesting that one of the major themes identified in the history of technical education on this website mirrors this tension that has produced the so-called academic- vocational divide – nothing changes! Perry’s ideas are still very relevant and valid today and sadly await recognition and implementation and what little progress has been achieved since his time has been painfully slow. Many of his Irish predecessors, and he and others since, have been progressive thinkers and innovators in astronomy, mathematics, science and technical education. Their pioneering work has so often been overlooked or marginalised by the English. Perhaps it is another example of the inability of the English to recognise and celebrate the achievements of the other home countries? John Perry has not been given the recognition that he deserves and was truly a very remarkable individual well ahead of his time.
He was elected president of the Institution of Electrical Engineers and was president of the Physical Society, (now the Institute of Physics), from 1906 to 1908. He died in 1920.
References: Nudds. R. N., McMillan N. D., Weaire. D. L and McKenna Lawlor. S. M. P. ‘Science in Ireland 1800-1930. Tradition and Reform.’ ISBN 0:9513586 1 8. Dublin.1988.
John Perry. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
Silvanus P Thompson
Born in York in 1851, the year of the Great Exhibition, he started teaching science at Bootham School in 1873. He was greatly influenced by a lecture given by William Crookes which inspired him to become interested in electromagnetism and optics. In 1876 he was appointed lecturer in physics at University College, Bristol and was made a professor in 1878 at the age of 27 and he stayed at Bristol for nine years. He was very interested in technical education and made a number of fact finding trips to Europe and presented a seminal paper at the (R) Society of Arts in 1879 entitled ‘Apprenticeships, Scientific and Unscientific’ (see chronology on this website) which again like others, (Huxley, Playfair, Magnus et.al – see biographies on this website), highlighted the deficiencies in technical education in England. He recognised that technical education was critical in transferring and translating scientific knowledge into action and practical application and enhancing technical and technological innovation. He was totally committed to this endeavour and spent the rest of his life working to improve technical education and training. Following the creation of the City and Guilds of London Institute for the Advancement of Technical Education, the Finsbury College was founded and Thompson was appointed its Principal and Professor of Physics. Thompson organised classes in optics at Finsbury Technical College which was then at the centre of the spectacle making district in Clerkenwell, He held those positions for 30 years and in 1907 the City and Guilds of London College along with other institutions merged to create Imperial College, London.
Thompson was a recognised authority on acoustics, electricity, magnetism and optics writing a number of seminal text books some of which went through innumerable editions. He later became a widely respected biographer and historian of science writing a biography of Lord Kelvin. He was a very gifted speaker, a skilful artist, and linguist and greatly interested in literary, antiquarian and artistic subjects. His range of interests and vision was truly remarkable and he bridged the scientific and artistic divide – C. P Snow, (Two Cultures), would be impressed with such an individual! In 1882 he was elected a member of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians and in 1886 a member of the Royal institution where he delivered some excellent lectures. He became the first president of the Rontgen Society, (Rontgen discovered x-rays), between 1897 and 1898. He died in 1916.
References: Thompson. J. S. And Thompson. H. G. ‘Silvanus Phillips Thompson, His Life and Letters,’ T. Fisher Unwin. London 1920. New edition published with and edited by Martin Gardner. Lynch. A. C. ‘Silvanus Thompson: teacher, researcher, and historian.’ IEE Proceedings. 1989.
Hertha (Sarah) Marks Ayrton (1854 – 1923)
Posted 12 June 2011 by Richard & filed under Biographies & Pen Portraits.
Born in Portsea, Hampshire, England and named Phoebe Sarah Marks – she later adopted the first name Hertha after the Teutonic earth goodness. Her father who had emigrated from Poland died when she was only seven and left the family heavily in debt, and who then struggled financially to survive. At the age of nine she went to live with her maternal aunt in London and attended the school that her uncle and aunt ran for their children. Both influenced the young Sarah her aunt teaching her mathematics and uncle philosophy. She supported herself and her family by tutoring and doing needle crafts. Her ambition of going to university was realised by the generosity of Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon* one of the founders of Girton College, (Girton was the first residential college for women established at Cambridge), and this allowed her to enter the college in 1876 after passing the Cambridge University Examination for women in 1874, with honours in English and Mathematics. In spite of problems with bouts of illness and consequent poor examination results she eventually completed the Mathematical Tripos with a relatively poor grade 3rd class from Cambridge in 1880. It is important to note that women were not eligible for the university degree at this time and were only granted certificates. However she then successfully completed an external examination and received a BSc degree from the University of London in 1881. She was greatly helped during this difficult period by Richard Glazebrook who provided extra coaching. So in spite of immense prejudice and resultant negative attitudes created by the male dominated education system towards women, she survived and triumphed – a remarkable achievement at the time.
Very few women were involved in such subjects as engineering, mathematics and science whether in teaching or research. Hertha began to violate and break down this deplorable situation. Between 1881 and 1884 she continued to support herself by tutoring in mathematics and other related subjects. Up to then her main interest was mathematics but she inherited from her father a practical ability, (he was a clockmaker and jeweller), and started patenting scientific and mathematical instruments such as a line divider for drafting. She also wrote and set problems in mathematics that were published in the ‘Educational Times’ and became acknowledged as a gifted mathematician particularly in spatial and geometrical reasoning. Her main interest then began to switch to science and she attended physics classes at Finsbury Technical College and was tutored by William Ayrton, (see biographies on this website), who she married in 1885. William Ayrton was a widower with a young daughter and besides being an outstanding teacher and physicist was supportive of women’s education and legal rights.
Hertha then began to work with her husband on electricity and other aspects of physics but developed her own research interests especially on electrical arc lighting and soon became an acknowledged expert in this rapidly emerging technology. She published extensively in such journals as the ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society’ and the ‘Electrician’ and wrote a seminal book on The Electric Arc which received international acclaim. She became recognised as a respected and renowned researcher in electricity and is now seen as a pioneer of plasma physics. Again it must be remembered that very few women were active in science and mathematics.
She was elected as the first female member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE) in 1899 which possesses a commendable record in encouraging and recognising women in their discipline. Sadly the same cannot be said of the Royal Society for when she was nominated as the first woman for a fellowship she was refused on the excuse that she was married. The charter excluding women from fellowship was reversed in 1923 but it was another twenty years before a woman was elected. The Royal Society has a very poor record in recognising the achievements of women scientists and mathematics. However she did present a paper to the Royal Society in 1904 – the first women to do so and she later received the Society’s Hughes medal, an achievement yet to repeated by a woman. She was an amazing trail blazer!
Hertha had to reduce her research activities to look after her ailing husband and even during this period when at the seaside with William carried detailed analysis of the formation of sand ripples which later formed part of the recognition in the Hughes Medal, along with her pioneering work on electric arcs. William died in 1908 and she continued her research in such areas of hydrodynamics and invented a fan for ventilating the trenches in the First World War and also improved the design and efficiency of search lights. She was an active member of the Women’s Social and Political Unions and was a founding member of the International Federation of University Women and the National Union of Scientific Workers (1920). She served on a number of national and international committees associated with women’s rights. After WW1 she improved the design of the fan and continued her research on vortices. She died in 1923 leaving her not inconsiderable estate to The Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE), the organisation that had encouraged and recognised her achievements throughout her career without prejudice or reservation. She is now recognised and accepted as an exceptional woman in her own right. Her approach to research was pragmatic and founded on engineering traditions; not for her were the theoretical physical models and concepts. Her background and education created this unique and productive individual. An example of this approach was her seminal work on sand ripples which initially was based solely on observation. Quite rightly she subsequently became a role model for future generations of women wishing to enter the scientific and engineering professions. Below she is delivering a lecture in 1899 to the Society of Electrical Engineers note the majority of males in audience and the visual aids she is using – a very remarkable lady.
City and Guilds of London Institute – more background.
Posted 23 March 2011 by Richard & filed under Biographies & Pen Portraits.
(More background on City and Guilds of London Institute (CGLI), Finsbury Technical College, the Central Institution and the City and Guilds of London Art School).
Founded in 1878 by a number of Livery Companies and the City of London in order to contribute to the development of a national system of technical education. Following a review by a number of Livery Companies recommendations were made about the structure and scope of City and Guilds of London Institute. There were to be five branches to the Institute namely:
· The transference of the Society of Arts Technological examinations to the Association of the Livery Companies which had been constituted as the City and Guilds of London Institute for the Advancement of Technical Education. The resulting Technological Examinations Department was to register and inspect classes in technology and manual training and to hold annual examinations in the subjects taught in these classes.
· The creation of a Trade/Technical College/School north of the Thames at Finsbury: “An intermediate College’ with day courses in mechanical and electrical engineering and chemistry and evening classes in the same subjects and in applied art.
· The creation of a South London Technical Art School at Kennington offering courses in such areas as drawing, house decorating, modelling and painting.
· The creation of a Central Institution which would be a high quality training school for teachers in London. An Institution of a ‘university character’, in mechanics and mathematics; civil, mechanical and electrical engineering; chemistry and
· Grants for supporting certain technical classes already established at King’s College, London and elsewhere; and grants for the proposed chairs of Chemical Technology and Mechanical Technology at University College, London.
Subsequently a number of meetings were held to consider taking forward these proposals and on 11thNovember 1878 at the Mercers’ Hall sixteen Livery Companies and the Corporation of London in attendance that would formally decide to establish a national system of technical education.
The funding came from the seventeen organisations present at the meeting and initially a sum of £11,582. 1Oshillings (£11,582.50p) was provided.
The sixteen Companies present at the founding meeting were:
Armourers and Braziers/Brasiers, Carpenters, Clothworkers, Coopers, Cordwainers, Drapers, Dyers, Goldsmiths, Fishmongers, Ironmongers, Leathersellers, Needlemakers, Mercers, Pewterers, Plaisters and Salters.
Eventuallyin 1880 the educational association comprising 14 of the founding Companies established was incorporated under the Company Acts as the City and Guilds of London Institute for the Advancement of Technical Education. In 1900 the Institute was granted a Royal Charter by Queen Victoria.
The locations of CGLI headquarters in London since its founding:
1879-80: Mercers’ Hall
1881-1913: Gresham College
1913: 3, St Helen’s Place – whilst Gresham College was rebuilt
1914: Leonard Street at the CGLI Finsbury technical College whilst the rebuilding of Gresham College continued
1915-57: Gresham College, Basinghall Street
1958 -1995: 76, Portland Place
1995+: 1, Giltspur Street.
Technological Examinations:
1879 – 80: Mercers’ Hall
1881 – 87: Gresham College
1887 – 91: City and Guilds of London Central Institute, South Kensington
After 1891 the technological examinations became part of the examination department and between:
1891 – 1903 were based at Exhibition Road (Royal School of Needlework), South Kensington and at various locations namely:
1903 – 22: Exhibition Road
1922 – 31: 29,Roland Gardens, South Kensington
1931 – 58: 31, Brechin Place
1958 – 1995: 76, Portland Place
1995 –present: 1, Giltspur Street
Some other dates:
1879 – 1926: City and Guilds Technical College, Finsbury – Leonard Street. Initially located in the premises of the Middle Class School in Cowper Street, classes started in November 1879 with teachers such as H. E. Armstrong and W. E. Ayrton. Eventually a new college was built in Leonard Street –foundation stone laid May 1881 and opened in 1883 as Finsbury Technical College.
1879 – 1923: South London Technical Art School – 122-124 Kennington Park Road
1932 – 37: City and Guilds of London Institute Kennington and Lambeth Art School – 118-71 Kennington Park Road
1937 – 71: City and Guilds of London Art School – 118-124 Kennington Park Road
1884 – 93: Central Institution – Exhibition Road
1893 – 1910: Central Technical College – Exhibition Road
1911 – 1962: City and Guilds College – Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington
The Central Institution
The Object of the Central Institution:
‘To train technical teachers, proprietors and managers of chemical, civil and electrical engineers, architects, builders and persons engaged in art industries’.
Building completed in June 1884 with extensive facilities including: classrooms, laboratories, lecture theatres, specialist workshops and studios with engines and other forms of machinery for practical work. Clearly it was an expensive initiative as it focused on high level work and initially student numbers were low e.g. in 1885 there were only 35 students. In 1909 student numbers were 408 but even with fees from them the Institution struggled to be financially viable. The shortfall of £5,000 was covered by the Livery Companies but the high cost of updating equipment was a real concern. Eventually following recommendations from a Royal Commission regarding university education in London a faculty of engineering was created within the University of London and the City and Guilds Central Technical College as it was then called became one of its schools. Finally in 1907 it became one of the constituent colleges of Imperial College and in 1910 became known as the City and Guilds College.
Finsbury Technical College
The Objectives of Finsbury Technical College:
‘One of the yet unsolved problems of education is to discover subjects of instruction which a schoolboy, in after life, shall not cast aside as unprofitable, either for the purposes of his daily work or recreation, and the teaching of which shall have the same disciplinary effect as that of other subjects, which for so many centuries have been the sole instruments of education. In this college, an attempt will be made to partially solve this problem, by teaching science with this double object’. (Philip Magnus)
It is interesting to see what occupations the students represented at Cowper Street in 1880 included the following:
Brewers, Cabinet makers, Chemists, Dentists, Distillers, Drug brokers, Dyers, Electricians, Engineers, Engravers, Fire hose makers, Gas engineers, Glue makers, Hair and felt manufacturers, Inspectors of the Telephone Company, Leather dressers, Perfumers, Philosophical instruments makers, Photographers, Printers, Scale makers, Surgical instrument makers, Telegraphic instrument makers. Telegraphists, Varnish and colour manufacturers, Whitesmiths and Wine merchants,
A remarkable range! I wonder what Philosophical instrument makers were! Something about Natural Philosophy?
Lambeth School of Art/City and Guilds of London Art School
The Institute took over the Lambeth School of Art in 1878 when it faced closure. It was renamed the South London School of Technical Art on Kennington Park Road. The premises were extended by adding extra studios. Most of the classes were offered in the evening and students from local industries particularly the Doulton potteries. Classes were offered in calligraphy, drawing, a wide range of masonry techniques, painting and pottery modelling. The school proved very successful and trained many noted artists and designers. The premises were further extended in 1932 and in 1938 and it was renamed the City and Guilds of London Art School. The running costs of £20,000 in 1970 were relatively modest but the Institute decided that its work was out of kilter with its main business. A separate charitable trust was created supported by a number of Livery Companies and in 1971 the formal links with the Institute ceased.
This brief account does not do justice to the contribution the City and Guilds has made to the development of technical education. It created a number of fascinating institutions and has become a major examining body offering over 500 qualifications in a wide range of industrial sectors throughout 8,500 colleges and training providers in over 80 countries. The City and Guilds Group comprises: the Hospitality Awarding Body (HAB), the Institute of Leadership and Management (ILM), National Proficiency Tests Council (NPTC) and the Pitman Examinations Institute (PEI).
References:
CGLI. ‘Reflections Past and Future’. By Andrew Sich CGLI. 2000.
Lang. J. ‘City and Guilds of London Institute. Centenary 1878 – 1978. CGLI. 1978.
City and Guilds of London Institute. ‘A Short History’. CGLI. 1993.
Cronin. B. P. ‘Technology, Industrial Conflict and the Development of Technical Education in the 19th– Century England’. Ashgate. Aldershot. ISBN 0 7546 0313 X. 2001.
© 2017 Technical Education Matters.
9-3. Royal Institute of British Architects
Chapter X. Demolition and Monument解体と記念碑
(1) 東京女学館と学習院
(2) 工部大学校校舎跡地
工部大学校跡記念塔に関する書類、昭和14年4月
此の地は明治天皇の聖蹟にして又実に我が国工学発祥の処と為す。はじめ明治4年工部工学寮を此処に置く。同六年寮内に工学校を開き、同10年改めて工部大学校と称し工作局の所管と為す。よく11年新築校舎成るを以て7月15日明治天皇親臨して開校の典を挙げ給う。皇族大臣参議以下参列し其儀極めて荘厳なり。天皇勅語を賜う中に百工を勧むるは経世の要にして時務の急なり。自今此校に従学する者勤勉して以て利用厚生の源を開かん事を望むの語あり。次に校舎の鍵·鑰を工部省御用取り扱い参議伊藤博文之を拝受して工作局長大鳥圭介に授け又報答の辞を奏す。式類よて天皇格教場を巡覧し学生の進講を聴き理化学の実験を視給いで後還幸あらせらる仰も此地は麹町区三年町に在り。旧延岡藩邸の遺蹟にして面積約一万二千坪本校舎はルネイサンス式二階建てにして之を中心として博物館実験室工作場生徒館等前方及び左右に配置せられ堂々として虎ノ門壕頭に聲ゆ○て煉瓦造にして広壮偉観を極む。是に於いて土木機械電信造家化学鉱山冶金の諸学科備えり尋いて造船学科を加え俊才輩出す。同十八年工部省廃せられたるを以て文部科学省の所管となり翌十九年帝国大学令の発布せられるるに及び工科大学となり総合大学の一部を為す。後本郷区の新校舎成るに及び之に移り虎ノ門の土地諸建造物は挙げて宮内庁の所管に帰し或いは帝室博物館の倉庫となり或いは維新史料編纂事務局東京女学館等に使用せしめらる。大正十二年関東地方大震火災の起るや諸建造物皆甚しく害を被り複用を可からさるに至る。既にして帝都復興の事業始まるに及び旧地を清掃して文部科学省会計検査院華族会館東京倶楽部東亜文化学院等の諸建造物新たに此に経営せらる而して遂に一物の旧容を留むるものなし。我等工部大学校出身者は頗る懐古の情に堪えさるものあり。乃て相謀りて小記念塔を作り之に石材を嵌め入して此一大学園の由来と所在とを記す。庶民くらは聖蹟と史跡とを永く後世に伝えるを得ん。工学博士大熊喜邦夙に思を之に致し辛苦して当時の遺物なる煉瓦石材銅材等を拾集し以て此塔の位置蓋し本校舎左翼館の中央に当たると云う。昭和十四年四月 工部大学校出身虎ノ門会作之 虎ノ門会員工学博士曽根達蔵撰