0.4 — Introduction

The publication's objective:

Bamboos of Thailand serves as a comprehensive reference work encompassing information on all presently known native and naturalized bamboo species in Thailand, along with a substantial listing of introduced bamboo species. This compilation, the first of its kind in over six decades, provides detailed descriptions of the vegetative characteristics of all native and naturalized bamboo species in Thailand. Moreover, it offers comprehensive descriptions of vegetative traits for numerous species cultivated at Bambusetum Baan Sammi in Chiang Mai Province.

This monograph is a valuable resource for botany enthusiasts seeking to identify bamboo species based on their vegetative characteristics, given the prolonged flowering intervals of most bamboo species, rendering generative characteristics often unavailable. The extensive photographic material within the monograph showcases vegetative traits of specimens in both juvenile and adult stages, thereby enhancing accuracy in identification.

In addition to covering Thai bamboo species, the monograph includes numerous foreign tropical and subtropical bamboo species introduced to Thailand. As a result, it proves beneficial to botany enthusiasts worldwide, particularly those involved with tropical and subtropical bamboo species in regions such as Southeast Asia, India, South China, Australia, California, Florida, and Mediterranean areas.

Institutions and organizations with botanical, ecological, ethnobotanical, agricultural, and horticultural focuses, particularly those situated in tropical and subtropical regions, stand to benefit from this monograph. Additionally, students, specialized plant nurseries, bamboo processing businesses, and other enterprises utilizing bamboo for construction and raw materials may find this resource invaluable.

Sources: The work is based on a compilation of data from primary sources, especially those available on the Internet (mainly IPNI, The Plant List, Kew GrassBase, and Kew Science Plants of the World Online). Additional sources include botanical literature (particularly firsthand accounts and illustrations), horticultural literature (including works written in Thai script), and living bamboo collections in Chiang Mai (Huai Hong Khrai, Royal Development Study Center, Choeng Doi, Doi Saket; Royal Project Bamboo Collection, Mae Hia, Mueang Chiang Mai; Boonthammee Bamboo Garden, Ban Waen, Hang Dong; Bambusetum Baan Sammi, Pa Lan, Doi Saket).

Bamboo species: Chapters 1 and 2 deal with the species of bamboo in Thailand. They are arranged in alphabetical order. The information on species is given by full text or reference. Typically, this data consists of the following: Name of the species with an abbreviated author citation; the species' vernacular and English names, if known; the species' wild or cultivated area of distribution, mostly by country name, and more specifically for distribution within Thailand; culm size and other vegetative characteristics of the species, which can be fully adopted by detailed or original descriptions (primarily for Thai bamboo species), or by citing the reference only; reference to image locations in publications; the uses of the species, typically for culms, shoots, and plants; and, if known, the requirements for plant cultivation. Specimens that have been received and examined are listed separately from the species details.

Description of species: If native or naturalized species are treated (in Chapter 1), existing species descriptions have been adopted and references cited. For species introduced into Thailand (in Chapter 2), usually, only the references have been cited. In general, only the description of the vegetative parts of a species has been adopted; the generative parts have been left out, but a note was added about whether they are known to science or not. When available, descriptions with a high degree of detail of vegetative characteristics were preferred. Unfortunately, detailed vegetative descriptions are missing for several native species in Thailand. There are different, often cumulative reasons for this: Firstly, due to the nature of the reproduction of most bamboo species, none or hardly any of the significant vegetative plant parts (e.g., culm-leaves) are present in the flowering stage, i.e., during a stage in which botanists prefer to collect herbarium material (flowering material), which means that vegetative plant parts are missing from the collection so that their characteristics cannot find their way into the original description of the species. Secondly, many of these bamboo species have only a small distribution area and grow in distant, difficult-to-access areas or areas that are inaccessible for long periods for political reasons; therefore, there has not been any recollection of material from these species. Thirdly, many of these bamboo species are local and of no economic importance to humans and remain unknown even to locals. The lack of vegetative characteristics in a species description makes it impossible to identify specimens from which only the vegetative characteristics are known. That is the prime reason why several acquired bamboo plants from Thailand could not be assigned to any species.

Specimens: Numerous bamboo specimens are treated in BAMBOOS OF THAILAND. Predominantly, the specimens are living bamboo plants grown in cultivation at Bambusetum Baan Sammi, and, in a few cases, they are specimens at another location, or they are herbarium specimens obtained by Baan Sammi, or are seeds only. The specimen accession number of specimens obtained by Baan Sammi has the prefix BS (which stands for Baan Sammi), followed by a dash and four digits, the first digit zero, and, in some cases and following the last digit, with an extension, e.g., "A", "-1". For a detailed explanation of how accession numbers are formed, see The Bamboo Numbering and Bamboo Locating System at Bambusetum Baan Sammi.

A prefix other than BS indicates that Baan Sammi did not acquire that specimen and that it is held elsewhere. Such prefixes are

• BT, which stands for Boonthammee Bamboo Garden, Ban Waen, Hang Dong, Chiang Mai,

• CM, for any location in Chiang Mai Province,

• FTS, for Foeke Tiemensma's Garden, Pa Pae, Mae Taeng, Chiang Mai,

• HHK, for Huai Hong Khrai, Royal Development Study Center, Choeng Doi, Doi Saket, Chiang Mai,

• MH, for Royal Project Bamboo Collection, Mae Hia, Mueang Chiang Mai, Chiang Mai, ceased in 2021 (bamboo stock transplanted to Royal Agricultural Station Pangda, Samoeng District),

• QSBG, for Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden, Mae Raem, Mae Rim, Chiang Mai,

• RFR, for Royal Flora Ratchaphruek (Royal Park Rajapruek), Mae Hia, Mueang Chiang Mai, Chiang Mai,

• SDS, for Satha's Garden, Pa Miang, Doi Saket, Chiang Mai.

Due to insufficient space in air-conditioned rooms in the Baan Sammi buildings, it was impossible from the outset to permanently store collected herbarium material. That is why I have limited myself to keeping living bamboo plants in the Baan Sammi Bambusetum and creating an extensive photo collection for each specimen.

Some bamboo species cultivated at Bambusetum Baan Sammi have flowered and seeded. Herbarium material was offered to various botanical institutions in Thailand and abroad, provided it was not ubiquitous.

Description of specimens: A description (of the vegetative characteristics) was created for many specimens to facilitate the later identification of the species. This was only possible when a living specimen reached a sufficient size over the years after its introduction to Bambusetum Baan Sammi and when the features were numerous and easily recognizable. The detailed descriptions contain major terms in a standardized arrangement for the vegetative parts of the plant in bold text, which makes the descriptions easier to read. A brief or no description was provided if a specimen did not remain at Bambusetum Baan Sammi long enough; consequently, not all characteristics could be observed and recorded. Unfortunately, this was the case for many specimens not planted out due to insufficient space but kept in containers and later outsourced to Boonthammee Bamboo Garden. Detailed descriptions were made if living specimens remained in Bambusetum Baan Sammi for a sufficiently long time. These descriptions, along with the photographs, are intended to enable the reader to identify the species in the vegetative state. Therefore, attention was paid to details, particularly the characteristics of the culm-leaves.

Origin of specimens: Most of the specimens received come from Thailand, mainly from the northern and southern regions, some from the west, east, and northeast, and a few from central Thailand. Many specimens come from neighboring countries, and some are from outside Asia.

Collecting the specimens: The specimens obtained have been collected by various people, mainly gardeners and horticulturists, botanists, plant hunters, bamboo nursery owners, and plant and seed dealers. Specimens were collected from the wild, from native populations or cultivated stocks, from botanical gardens and plant collectors' gardens, and bamboo nurseries. 

Unfortunately, data about the origin and locality is often incomplete and inaccurate, especially if the plants come from plant hunters and nurserymen who do not want to disclose this information for obvious reasons. 

The acquired specimens were registered using an online-based spreadsheet ("BAMBOO ACCESSION") with their most important data. This spreadsheet remained unpublished. It contained 1,189 specimens, with the last specimen acquired on 19 July 2022.

Type of plant material collected: From the beginning, Bambusetum Baan Sammi was intended to accommodate living bamboo plants, which, depending on the species, either remain in the garden permanently or only temporarily over several years to observe, identify, describe, and photographically document them. Strong bamboo propagules (plant divisions) were best suited for this, especially if the bamboo plants were collected within Thailand. Bamboo seeds were also welcome, as these are the propagation materials for which an administrative effort to comply with import regulations when crossing borders can be organized most easily. If neither propagules nor seeds were available, but only herbarium material such as culm-leaves (sheaths) and leafy and flowering branches, these were documented photographically but not stored permanently, as neither rooms nor air conditioning systems were available to regulate the appropriate air temperature and humidity.

Propagules / plant divisions / offsets: Over the years, Bambusetum Baan Sammi received more than 300 different bamboo species, most of which have been received and established as propagules. When collecting a species, more than just one propagule was often chosen, and usually, 3 propagules were obtained. After a while, the duplicates were forwarded to Boonthammee Bamboo Garden. Only one specimen should remain in Bambusetum Baan Sammi.

Seeds: The bamboo seeds recorded here were obtained by Bambusetum Baan Sammi and Boonthammee Bamboo Garden from 2009 to 2021. Originally, the seeds were documented in posts on Google Blogspot blog under the title "Compilation of Bamboo Seeds". However, since March 2020, all data has been transferred to Bamboos of Thailand Chapters 1 and 2, respectively. 

Most seeds were obtained from internationally operating seed traders, mainly from Yunnan, China, and some seeds from bamboo collectors, botanical gardens, and bamboo nurseries in Thailand and abroad. When bamboo plants that have been grown on the grounds of Bambusetum Baan Sammi and Boonthammee Bamboo Garden flowered and developed seeds, herbarium material, and seeds were collected by Khun Dieter or Thammarat Boonthammee. Photographs were taken of the herbarium material and seeds, as well as the seeds' germination process and the early stages of the seedlings. The development of the germination process for seeds between 2013 and 2021 was recorded in tables: Tables — Bamboo Seed Germination Tests. 

Over time, comparative observation of the seeds (de-husked, or embraced by their husks, mainly lemma and palea) of the different species revealed general patterns in the seed morphology that may correspond to the genus to which the species are assigned. However, because seeds of only a very limited number of different species were available and too many seeds were misnamed, the following statement should be considered tentative. 

Each of the following genera may be represented by a single general seed pattern, which allows for distinguishing seeds from other genera:
Cephalostachyum, Melocanna, Ochlandra, Schizostachyum (Melocanninae); Lingnania, Melocalamus, Oxytenanthera, Thyrsostachys (Bambusinae); Chimonobambusa incl. Qiongzhuea, Phyllostachys (Arundinariinae). 

However, the morphology of the seeds (dry caryopses) and the outer appearance of the spikelets in the genera of the Bambusa-Dendrocalamus-Gigantochloa complex are very different. I assume this difference is an additional indication of the non-monophylly of these three genera.

Two or more different general seed patterns can be found in Bambusa; the main pattern is fusiform. Perhaps Lingnania can be separated by the dark color of the spikelets and the dark pericarp of the caryopses. 

At least three or more different general seed patterns can be found in Dendrocalamus: One general pattern is fusiform and similar to Bambusa (actually, they comprise the core Dendrocalamus group: Dendrocalamus strictus, D. membranaceus, D. barbatus). Another pattern is of an oblong shape and may be confined to [subgen.] Sinocalamus (e.g., Dendrocalamus sinicus, D. copelandii). A third pattern, of an ovoid to subglobose shape, may comprise many of the remaining Dendrocalamus species (e.g., Dendrocalamus asper).

Photos of specimens: There is an extensive collection of images in high resolution of the vast majority of the specimens. Nearly all specimens are documented by taking photos, usually with 10 to 50 photos per specimen, sometimes with more photos. All specimens treated comprised over 14,000 photos by early 2020. The photos were taken mainly to identify a bamboo species in its vegetative stage. Therefore, the pictured parts of the bamboo specimens are usually close-ups of important characteristics, such as rhizome type, young (emerging) shoots, culm nodes and internodes, branch buds, branches and branching type, parts of a culm-leaf (sheath) like sheath (sheath proper), auricles, ligule, and blade in their young and mature stages, parts of a foliage-leaf such as a sheath, auricles, ligule, and blade. During the years in which the specimens at Bambusetum Baan Sammi were cultivated, flowering occurred in only a few specimens; hence, only a few photos could be taken of flowering branches, flowers, and seeds. The specimens listed in Chapters 1 and 2 with released photographs, can be recognized by buttons bearing their specimen accession number, e.g., BS-0344. If there is no button for a particular specimen, photos have either not been taken or existing photos have not been released. There are over 600 specimens with images. The specimens are arranged alphanumerically in the file folders of the Photo Collection. Within a file folder, the photos are also arranged alphanumerically, and this order usually coincides with the chronological order, i.e., the earliest photos show the specimen in a young stage of development, the most recent photos in an advanced or adult stage.

Thai names in Thai script are transcribed (Romanized) according to the Royal Thai General System of Transcription (RTGS), and the transcription is enclosed in parentheses. Occasionally, for names in Thai script and names in English, the IPA transcription is additionally given and enclosed in slashes.