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Write an academic explanation for high school students what is System Engineering
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System Engineering: A Comprehensive Approach to Problem Solving
Introduction: System engineering is like being the conductor of a grand symphony. Just as a conductor coordinates different musical instruments to create beautiful music, system engineers orchestrate various components to build complex systems. In this academic explanation, we'll explore what system engineering is and why it matters.
What is System Engineering? System engineering is a structured and disciplined approach to designing, developing, and managing systems. But what exactly are systems? Think of them as any combination of parts or elements that work together to achieve a common purpose. Systems can be as simple as a bicycle or as complex as a spacecraft. System engineering helps us make these systems better.
The Systems Engineering Process: To create and manage complex systems, engineers follow a systematic process:
1. Understanding the Problem: Before anything else, engineers must fully grasp the problem they're trying to solve. What is the goal of the system? What are the requirements and constraints?
2. Design: This phase involves creating a blueprint for the system. Engineers decide how all the parts will fit together and function as a whole. Just like an architect designs a building, system engineers design systems on paper.
3. Development: Here, the design becomes a reality. Engineers build and assemble the components, like programmers writing code for a computer system or workers assembling car parts in a factory.
4. Testing: Imagine a new video game. Before it reaches your hands, it undergoes rigorous testing to ensure it works without bugs. System engineers perform similar tests to make sure the system operates correctly and safely.
5. Integration: This step involves putting all the pieces together and making sure they work harmoniously. It's like assembling a jigsaw puzzle, but with more complex parts.
6. Operation and Maintenance: Once the system is up and running, it needs care. Engineers monitor its performance and fix any issues that arise, just like a car needs regular maintenance.
7. Evaluation and Improvement: Systems are never perfect from the start. Engineers gather feedback, identify weaknesses, and make improvements to enhance the system's performance.
Why is System Engineering Important? System engineering is crucial because it helps us solve complex problems efficiently and effectively. Imagine trying to build a skyscraper without a plan or a symphony without a conductor—it would be chaos! System engineering brings order to complexity, making sure systems meet their goals, are safe, and work smoothly.
Conclusion: In a world filled with intricate systems, from smartphones to space shuttles, system engineering plays a vital role. It's the discipline that guides engineers in creating, managing, and improving the systems that shape our lives. Just like a conductor makes beautiful music from various instruments, system engineers create functioning and efficient systems from many different parts. So, the next time you use your phone or see a rocket launch, remember that system engineering is behind it all, making it work flawlessly.
ise@israschool.org.il
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write an academic explaination for high school students what are forces?
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Certainly! Here's an academic explanation of forces for high school students:
Forces: Fundamental Concepts in Physics
In the world of physics, forces are fundamental to understanding how objects move and interact with each other. Forces are essentially pushes or pulls that act on objects, causing them to change their motion or shape. Let's explore the key aspects of forces:
1. Types of Forces:
There are several types of forces that you'll encounter in the study of physics:
Gravity: Gravity is the force that pulls all objects with mass toward one another. It's what keeps you anchored to the Earth and makes objects fall when dropped.
Friction: Friction is the force that opposes the motion of objects when they rub against each other. For example, when you slide a book across a table, friction between the book and the table slows it down.
Tension: Tension is the force that stretches or pulls objects when they are connected by a rope, string, or cable. When you swing on a swing set, the tension in the chains keeps you suspended.
Applied Force: Applied force is a push or pull applied to an object by another object or person. For instance, when you push a shopping cart, you're applying a force to move it.
Normal Force: Normal force is the force exerted by a surface to support the weight of an object resting on it. When you stand on the ground, the ground exerts a normal force upward to counteract the force of gravity pulling you down.
2. Force as a Vector:
Forces are not only defined by their strength but also by their direction. We represent forces as vectors, which have both magnitude (how strong the force is) and direction (in which way the force acts). When multiple forces act on an object, we can use vector addition to determine the net force, which is the overall force that affects the object's motion.
3. Effects of Forces:
Forces can have various effects on objects:
Change in Motion: A force can cause an object to speed up, slow down, or change direction. This is described by Newton's First Law, which states that an object in motion tends to stay in motion, and an object at rest tends to stay at rest unless acted upon by an external force.
Deformation: Forces can also change the shape of objects. When you stretch a rubber band or compress a spring, you're applying forces that cause deformation.
4. Units of Force:
In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of force is the newton (N). One newton is defined as the force required to accelerate a one-kilogram mass by one meter per second squared (1 N = 1 kg m/s²).
5. Newton's Laws of Motion:
The study of forces is closely connected to Newton's Laws of Motion, formulated by Sir Isaac Newton. These laws describe how forces affect the motion of objects and are foundational principles in physics.
In summary, forces are the fundamental concepts in physics that explain how objects move and interact. Understanding the types of forces, their effects, and how they are represented as vectors is essential for comprehending the mechanics of the physical world.
ise@israschool.org.il
Write an academic explaination for high school students what are forces in engineering?
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Certainly! Here's an academic explanation of forces in engineering for high school students:
Forces in Engineering: Building Blocks of Motion and Stability
In the realm of engineering, forces play a pivotal role in designing, analyzing, and constructing structures and mechanisms. Forces, in this context, refer to the interactions between objects that cause them to move, deform, or remain at rest. Understanding forces is fundamental to engineering because they are the building blocks that dictate how objects behave within the physical world.
1. Types of Forces in Engineering:
Engineers encounter various types of forces in their work, including:
Static Forces: These forces do not result in motion. Instead, they maintain the equilibrium or stability of an object. For instance, when designing a bridge, engineers must consider static forces to ensure it can support its own weight and the weight of any vehicles crossing it.
Dynamic Forces: These forces cause motion or changes in motion. Engineers study dynamic forces to understand how structures and machines respond to actions like acceleration, deceleration, and impact. For example, when designing a car's safety features, engineers consider the dynamic forces involved in a collision.
Torsional Forces: Torsional forces twist or rotate objects. Engineers encounter torsional forces in applications like designing shafts for engines, which must withstand twisting without breaking.
2. Vector Nature of Forces:
In engineering, forces are treated as vectors, much like in physics. A vector has both magnitude (strength) and direction. When multiple forces act on an object, engineers use vector mathematics to determine the net force, which is the combined effect of all forces involved. Understanding the direction and magnitude of forces is crucial for ensuring the safety and efficiency of engineering projects.
3. Applications of Forces in Engineering:
Engineers apply their knowledge of forces in a wide range of applications:
Structural Engineering: In designing buildings, bridges, and other structures, engineers calculate the forces exerted on materials to ensure they can withstand loads, including gravity, wind, and seismic forces.
Mechanical Engineering: Engineers design machines, engines, and mechanical systems, considering forces that affect their operation, such as friction, tension, and compression.
Aerospace Engineering: In the aerospace industry, engineers study forces to develop and analyze aircraft and spacecraft designs, including how aerodynamic forces affect flight.
Civil Engineering: Civil engineers use forces to assess the stability of foundations, dams, and retaining walls and to design efficient transportation systems.
4. Safety and Efficiency:
Understanding forces in engineering is essential for both safety and efficiency. Engineers need to ensure that structures and systems can withstand the forces they will encounter during their lifespan. This knowledge helps prevent accidents and failures, making engineering solutions reliable and safe.
In conclusion, forces are the underlying principles that engineers rely on to design and analyze the behavior of objects, structures, and systems in the field of engineering. A comprehensive understanding of forces is vital for creating innovative and robust engineering solutions that meet the demands of our complex world.
Can you give me some real life examples where we can see the results of forces?
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Certainly! Forces are fundamental to our everyday lives, and you can observe their effects in various situations. Here are some real-life examples where you can see the results of forces:
Gravity:
Dropping an object: When you drop an object, it falls to the ground due to the force of gravity acting on it.
Friction:
Pushing a car: You apply force to move a car, and friction between the tires and the road helps it move.
Tension:
Swinging on a swing set: The tension in the swing's chains or ropes allows you to swing back and forth.
Compression:
Sitting on a chair: The chair's legs experience compressive forces when you sit on it, counteracting the force of your weight.
Air Resistance:
Skydiving: As a person falls through the air, air resistance pushes upward, slowing them down.
Electromagnetic Forces:
Using magnets: When you bring two magnets close together, you can feel the repulsive or attractive forces between them.
Buoyancy:
Floating in water: The buoyant force pushes upward on your body, allowing you to float in water.
Torsion:
Turning a key in a lock: You apply torque (a rotational force) to turn the key inside the lock cylinder.
Shear:
Cutting with scissors: The blades of scissors apply shear forces to cut through materials like paper or cloth.
Spring Force:
Using a trampoline: When you bounce on a trampoline, the springs provide an upward force, allowing you to jump.
Magnetic Levitation (Maglev):
Maglev trains: These trains use magnetic forces to levitate above the tracks, reducing friction and enabling high-speed travel.
Centripetal Force:
Driving around a curve: The force required to keep a car moving in a circular path is provided by friction and is directed toward the center of the curve.
Gravitational Orbits:
Satellites orbiting Earth: Satellites stay in orbit due to the gravitational pull of the Earth, which acts as a centripetal force keeping them in their path.
Hydraulic Systems:
Operating heavy machinery: Hydraulic systems use fluid pressure to apply force, such as in construction equipment like excavators.
Electrostatic Forces:
Static electricity: When you rub a balloon against your hair and it sticks, this is due to electrostatic forces between charged objects.
These examples demonstrate how forces play a fundamental role in our daily experiences and are essential for understanding the physical world around us.
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ise@israschool.org.il
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Can you give me real life examples where System Engineering is applied
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Certainly! Systems engineering is applied in a wide range of industries and domains to design, develop, and manage complex systems. Here are some real-life examples of where systems engineering is commonly applied:
Aerospace and Aviation:
Designing and developing commercial aircraft, including passenger planes and military aircraft.
Creating space exploration missions, such as Mars rovers or satellites.
Developing air traffic control systems to manage the flow of aircraft in the sky.
Automotive Industry:
Designing and manufacturing automobiles, including electric and autonomous vehicles.
Developing advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and self-driving cars.
Implementing vehicle management systems for fleet operations.
Healthcare:
Designing and improving medical devices, such as MRI machines, pacemakers, and insulin pumps.
Developing healthcare information systems to manage patient records and hospital operations.
Integrating various medical technologies in a hospital setting for better patient care.
Defense and Military:
Creating complex military weapon systems, such as fighter jets and naval vessels.
Developing command and control systems for military operations.
Designing secure communication networks for defense organizations.
Energy and Utilities:
Designing and managing power grid systems for efficient energy distribution.
Developing renewable energy systems like wind farms and solar power plants.
Implementing smart grid technology for improved energy management.
Transportation and Infrastructure:
Designing and managing urban transportation systems, including subways and high-speed trains.
Developing intelligent traffic management systems to reduce congestion.
Designing and maintaining civil infrastructure like bridges and tunnels.
Information Technology:
Designing complex software systems and applications.
Implementing enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems for large organizations.
Developing secure and reliable network infrastructures.
Space Exploration:
Designing and managing space missions, such as the International Space Station (ISS).
Creating telescopes and observatories for astronomical research.
Developing satellite constellations for communication and Earth observation.
Manufacturing and Production:
Designing automated manufacturing processes for efficiency and quality control.
Developing supply chain management systems for inventory and logistics.
Implementing quality control systems to ensure product reliability.
Environmental Engineering:
Designing and managing water treatment and purification systems.
Developing waste management and recycling processes.
Creating systems to monitor and mitigate environmental pollution.
These are just a few examples of how systems engineering is applied across various industries to tackle complex problems and ensure the successful development and operation of intricate systems. Systems engineers play a crucial role in optimizing the performance, reliability, and cost-effectiveness of these systems.
ise@israschool.org.il
Write an explanation for High school students What is PID
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Sure! Here's an explanation of PID controllers designed for high school students:
What is a PID Controller?
Imagine you have a robot, and you want it to do something specific, like keep a room at a constant temperature or make a drone fly smoothly. To make the robot or device do what you want, you need a way to control it, and that's where a PID controller comes in.
PID stands for:
P (Proportional): This part of the controller looks at how far off your robot or device is from the target (what you want it to do). It's like checking how far your room's temperature is from the temperature you want. If it's too cold, the P part tells your robot to heat things up a bit.
I (Integral): Sometimes, there might be a small, constant error that the P part can't fix by itself. The I part helps by looking at how long this error has been there and trying to fix it over time. It's like when your room is always a little too hot or too cold, and the I part slowly adjusts things to make it just right.
D (Derivative): The D part checks how fast your robot or device is moving toward the target. If it's getting close too quickly, it might slow down a bit to avoid overshooting. For example, if your drone is tilting too much, the D part helps it level out smoothly.
How Does it Work?
Think of a PID controller as a smart brain that keeps checking and adjusting. It constantly looks at what your robot or device is doing compared to what you want it to do and then makes small changes to get as close as possible to your goal.
For instance, if you're using a PID controller to control the temperature in a room, it will check the current temperature (P part), how long it's been off target (I part), and how fast it's changing (D part). Then, it tells the heating or cooling system how much to adjust to reach the desired temperature.
Why is PID Important?
PID controllers are crucial because they make things work smoothly and accurately. They're like having a super-smart helper who keeps an eye on your robot or device and makes sure it does exactly what you want, even if there are small changes or disturbances.
So, whether it's keeping your room comfy, making a drone fly steadily, or controlling machines in factories, PID controllers are the secret sauce that helps everything stay on track and work the way it should.
ise@israschool.org.il
Write an academic explanation for High school students What is PID
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Certainly! Here's an academic explanation of PID controllers for high school students:
PID Controllers: A Fundamental Tool in Control Systems
PID controllers are a fundamental concept in the field of control systems engineering. The term "PID" stands for Proportional, Integral, and Derivative, and these controllers are widely used in various real-world applications to maintain and regulate desired conditions or performance.
1. Proportional (P) Control:
The "P" in PID refers to "Proportional." This component of the PID controller works by constantly measuring the difference between the desired value (known as the setpoint) and the actual value of a specific variable, such as temperature, speed, or position.
Here's how it works:
If the actual value is far from the setpoint, the P component tells the system to take strong corrective action in the opposite direction to reduce the error.
If the actual value is only slightly off from the setpoint, the P component suggests a smaller correction.
In simpler terms, think of it as a thermostat in your home. If the desired temperature is 70°F, and the current temperature is 75°F, the P component will instruct the heating system to produce more heat to reduce the difference.
2. Integral (I) Control:
The "I" in PID stands for "Integral." This part of the PID controller focuses on the accumulation of errors over time. It's like having a memory of past errors and trying to fix them.
Here's how it works:
If there is a small, persistent error that the P component can't eliminate, the I component steps in. It calculates the total error over time and adjusts the system to gradually reduce this accumulated error.
Imagine a water tank where the goal is to keep the water level at a constant height. If there's a slow leak causing a gradual decrease in water level, the I component will detect this long-term error and gradually increase the water flow to compensate.
3. Derivative (D) Control:
The "D" in PID represents "Derivative." This component deals with the rate of change of the error. It helps prevent overshooting or oscillations when the system is approaching the setpoint.
Here's how it works:
The D component observes how quickly the error is changing. If the error is decreasing rapidly, it suggests reducing the corrective action to prevent overshooting the setpoint.
If the error is increasing rapidly, the D component suggests increasing the corrective action to reach the setpoint faster.
Consider a self-driving car. The D component helps the car smoothly adjust its steering and speed when approaching a curve on the road, preventing sudden turns or jerky movements.
Why PID Controllers Matter:
PID controllers are essential in countless real-world applications. They help maintain stable conditions and precise control in systems ranging from industrial machines and robotics to temperature control in your home. Understanding PID controllers is crucial for engineers and scientists working on various technologies that impact our daily lives.
In summary, PID controllers are like intelligent controllers that constantly analyze errors, consider past mistakes, and adapt to changes to make sure systems work smoothly and accurately. They are the brains behind many automated processes and systems that we encounter in our modern world.
ise@israschool.org.il
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Can you give me examples of every day life where PID is used?
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PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) controllers are widely used in various everyday life applications to control processes and systems. Here are some examples:
Thermostats: PID controllers are used in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems to maintain a constant temperature. The controller adjusts the heating or cooling output based on the difference between the desired temperature (setpoint) and the current temperature.
Oven Temperature Control: Your kitchen oven likely uses a PID controller to regulate the temperature when baking or cooking. It ensures that the oven maintains the desired temperature, preventing food from overcooking or undercooking.
Car Cruise Control: Many modern vehicles employ PID controllers in their cruise control systems. These controllers help maintain a constant speed by adjusting throttle input to counteract changes in terrain or wind resistance.
Water Heater: Water heaters use PID controllers to maintain the desired water temperature. The controller adjusts the heating element to ensure the water is neither too hot nor too cold.
Washing Machines: Washing machines use PID control to manage water temperature, water level, and drum rotation speed. This helps ensure that your laundry is cleaned effectively without damaging the clothes.
Electric Kettles: Electric kettles often use PID controllers to bring water to a boil and then maintain it at a constant temperature for tea or other hot beverages.
Robotic Vacuum Cleaners: These devices use PID controllers to navigate and clean efficiently. They adjust their speed and direction based on sensor feedback to cover the entire area effectively.
Quadcopter Drones: PID controllers are used in the flight control systems of drones to stabilize them and keep them level. They adjust motor speeds to maintain a desired orientation and altitude.
Greenhouse Climate Control: In agriculture, PID controllers are used in greenhouses to control temperature, humidity, and CO2 levels, creating optimal conditions for plant growth.
Industrial Automation: PID controllers are extensively used in manufacturing and industrial processes to regulate variables like temperature, pressure, flow rate, and level in chemical reactors, refineries, and other industrial equipment.
Water Treatment Plants: In municipal water treatment plants, PID controllers are used to regulate the dosing of chemicals to ensure proper water purification.
Automated Brewing Systems: In home and commercial brewing, PID controllers are used to precisely control the temperature during mashing, boiling, and fermentation to achieve consistent and high-quality beer.
Camera Stabilization: Some camera gimbals and stabilizers use PID control to keep the camera steady while capturing smooth video footage.
Traffic Light Control: Some traffic management systems use PID controllers to optimize traffic light timings and adapt to changing traffic conditions.
Elevator Control: Elevators often use PID controllers to ensure smooth and precise leveling of the cabin with each floor and minimize overshooting.
These are just a few examples of how PID controllers are applied in various aspects of everyday life to maintain desired conditions, control systems, and improve efficiency and performance.
Wiki
Wiki
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_engineering
Systems engineering is an interdisciplinary field of engineering and engineering management that focuses on how to design, integrate, and manage complex systems over their life cycles. At its core, systems engineering utilizes systems thinking principles to organize this body of knowledge. The individual outcome of such efforts, an engineered system, can be defined as a combination of components that work in synergy to collectively perform a useful function.
Issues such as requirements engineering, reliability, logistics, coordination of different teams, testing and evaluation, maintainability and many other disciplines necessary for successful system design, development, implementation, and ultimate decommission become more difficult when dealing with large or complex projects. Systems engineering deals with work-processes, optimization methods, and risk management tools in such projects. It overlaps technical and human-centered disciplines such as industrial engineering, production systems engineering, process systems engineering, mechanical engineering, manufacturing engineering, production engineering, control engineering, software engineering, electrical engineering, cybernetics, aerospace engineering, organizational studies, civil engineering and project management. Systems engineering ensures that all likely aspects of a project or system are considered and integrated into a whole.
The systems engineering process is a discovery process that is quite unlike a manufacturing process. A manufacturing process is focused on repetitive activities that achieve high-quality outputs with minimum cost and time. The systems engineering process must begin by discovering the real problems that need to be resolved, and identifying the most probable or highest-impact failures that can occur. Systems engineering involves finding solutions to these problems.
QFD House of Quality for Enterprise Product Development Processes
The term systems engineering can be traced back to Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1940s.[1] The need to identify and manipulate the properties of a system as a whole, which in complex engineering projects may greatly differ from the sum of the parts' properties, motivated various industries, especially those developing systems for the U.S. military, to apply the discipline.[2][3]
When it was no longer possible to rely on design evolution to improve upon a system and the existing tools were not sufficient to meet growing demands, new methods began to be developed that addressed the complexity directly.[4] The continuing evolution of systems engineering comprises the development and identification of new methods and modeling techniques. These methods aid in a better comprehension of the design and developmental control of engineering systems as they grow more complex. Popular tools that are often used in the systems engineering context were developed during these times, including USL, UML, QFD, and IDEF.
In 1990, a professional society for systems engineering, the National Council on Systems Engineering (NCOSE), was founded by representatives from a number of U.S. corporations and organizations. NCOSE was created to address the need for improvements in systems engineering practices and education. As a result of growing involvement from systems engineers outside of the U.S., the name of the organization was changed to the International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) in 1995.[5] Schools in several countries offer graduate programs in systems engineering, and continuing education options are also available for practicing engineers.[6]
Some definitions
Simon Ramo, considered by some to be a founder of modern systems engineering, defined the discipline as: "...a branch of engineering which concentrates on the design and application of the whole as distinct from the parts, looking at a problem in its entirety, taking account of all the facets and all the variables and linking the social to the technological."[7] — Conquering Complexity, 2004.
"An interdisciplinary approach and means to enable the realization of successful systems"[8] — INCOSE handbook, 2004.
"System engineering is a robust approach to the design, creation, and operation of systems. In simple terms, the approach consists of identification and quantification of system goals, creation of alternative system design concepts, performance of design trades, selection and implementation of the best design, verification that the design is properly built and integrated, and post-implementation assessment of how well the system meets (or met) the goals."[9] — NASA Systems Engineering Handbook, 1995.
"The Art and Science of creating effective systems, using whole system, whole life principles" OR "The Art and Science of creating optimal solution systems to complex issues and problems"[10] — Derek Hitchins, Prof. of Systems Engineering, former president of INCOSE (UK), 2007.
"The concept from the engineering standpoint is the evolution of the engineering scientist (i.e. the scientific generalist who maintains a broad outlook). The method is that of the team approach. On large-scale-system problems, teams of scientists and engineers, generalists as well as specialists, exert their joint efforts to find a solution and physically realize it...The technique has been variously called the systems approach or the team development method."[11] — Harry H. Goode & Robert E. Machol, 1957.
"The systems engineering method recognizes each system is an integrated whole even though composed of diverse, specialized structures and sub-functions. It further recognizes that any system has a number of objectives and that the balance between them may differ widely from system to system. The methods seek to optimize the overall system functions according to the weighted objectives and to achieve maximum compatibility of its parts."[12] — Systems Engineering Tools by Harold Chestnut, 1965.
Systems engineering signifies only an approach and, more recently, a discipline in engineering. The aim of education in systems engineering is to formalize various approaches simply and in doing so, identify new methods and research opportunities similar to that which occurs in other fields of engineering. As an approach, systems engineering is holistic and interdisciplinary in flavour.
The traditional scope of engineering embraces the conception, design, development, production and operation of physical systems. Systems engineering, as originally conceived, falls within this scope. "Systems engineering", in this sense of the term, refers to the building of engineering concepts.
The use of the term "systems engineer" has evolved over time to embrace a wider, more holistic concept of "systems" and of engineering processes. This evolution of the definition has been a subject of ongoing controversy,[13] and the term continues to apply to both the narrower and broader scope.
Traditional systems engineering was seen as a branch of engineering in the classical sense, that is, as applied only to physical systems, such as spacecraft and aircraft. More recently, systems engineering has evolved to take on a broader meaning especially when humans were seen as an essential component of a system. Peter Checkland, for example, captures the broader meaning of systems engineering by stating that 'engineering' "can be read in its general sense; you can engineer a meeting or a political agreement."[14]: 10
Consistent with the broader scope of systems engineering, the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge (SEBoK)[15] has defined three types of systems engineering:
Product Systems Engineering (PSE) is the traditional systems engineering focused on the design of physical systems consisting of hardware and software.
Enterprise Systems Engineering (ESE) pertains to the view of enterprises, that is, organizations or combinations of organizations, as systems.
Service Systems Engineering (SSE) has to do with the engineering of service systems. Checkland defines a service system as a system which is conceived as serving another system.[14] Most civil infrastructure systems are service systems.
Systems engineering focuses on analyzing and eliciting customer needs and required functionality early in the development cycle, documenting requirements, then proceeding with design synthesis and system validation while considering the complete problem, the system lifecycle. This includes fully understanding all of the stakeholders involved. Oliver et al. claim that the systems engineering process can be decomposed into:
A Systems Engineering Technical Process
A Systems Engineering Management Process
Within Oliver's model, the goal of the Management Process is to organize the technical effort in the lifecycle, while the Technical Process includes assessing available information, defining effectiveness measures, to create a behavior model, create a structure model, perform trade-off analysis, and create sequential build & test plan.[16]
Depending on their application, although there are several models that are used in the industry, all of them aim to identify the relation between the various stages mentioned above and incorporate feedback. Examples of such models include the Waterfall model and the VEE model (also called the V model). [17]
System development often requires contribution from diverse technical disciplines.[18] By providing a systems (holistic) view of the development effort, systems engineering helps mold all the technical contributors into a unified team effort, forming a structured development process that proceeds from concept to production to operation and, in some cases, to termination and disposal. In an acquisition, the holistic integrative discipline combines contributions and balances tradeoffs among cost, schedule, and performance while maintaining an acceptable level of risk covering the entire life cycle of the item.[19]
This perspective is often replicated in educational programs, in that systems engineering courses are taught by faculty from other engineering departments, which helps create an interdisciplinary environment.[20][21]
The need for systems engineering arose with the increase in complexity of systems and projects, in turn exponentially increasing the possibility of component friction, and therefore the unreliability of the design. When speaking in this context, complexity incorporates not only engineering systems, but also the logical human organization of data. At the same time, a system can become more complex due to an increase in size as well as with an increase in the amount of data, variables, or the number of fields that are involved in the design. The International Space Station is an example of such a system.
The International Space Station is an example of a very complex system requiring systems engineering.
The development of smarter control algorithms, microprocessor design, and analysis of environmental systems also come within the purview of systems engineering. Systems engineering encourages the use of tools and methods to better comprehend and manage complexity in systems. Some examples of these tools can be seen here:[22]
System model, modeling, and simulation
Taking an interdisciplinary approach to engineering systems is inherently complex since the behavior of and interaction among system components is not always immediately well defined or understood. Defining and characterizing such systems and subsystems and the interactions among them is one of the goals of systems engineering. In doing so, the gap that exists between informal requirements from users, operators, marketing organizations, and technical specifications is successfully bridged.
The scope of systems engineering activities[23]
The principles of systems engineering – holism, emergent behavior, boundary, et al. – can be applied to any system, complex or otherwise, provided systems thinking is employed at all levels.[24] Besides defense and aerospace, many information and technology based companies, software development firms, and industries in the field of electronics & communications require systems engineers as part of their team.[25]
An analysis by the INCOSE Systems Engineering center of excellence (SECOE) indicates that optimal effort spent on systems engineering is about 15–20% of the total project effort.[26] At the same time, studies have shown that systems engineering essentially leads to reduction in costs among other benefits.[26] However, no quantitative survey at a larger scale encompassing a wide variety of industries has been conducted until recently. Such studies are underway to determine the effectiveness and quantify the benefits of systems engineering.[27][28]
Systems engineering encourages the use of modeling and simulation to validate assumptions or theories on systems and the interactions within them.[29][30]
Use of methods that allow early detection of possible failures, in safety engineering, are integrated into the design process. At the same time, decisions made at the beginning of a project whose consequences are not clearly understood can have enormous implications later in the life of a system, and it is the task of the modern systems engineer to explore these issues and make critical decisions. No method guarantees today's decisions will still be valid when a system goes into service years or decades after first conceived. However, there are techniques that support the process of systems engineering. Examples include soft systems methodology, Jay Wright Forrester's System dynamics method, and the Unified Modeling Language (UML)—all currently being explored, evaluated, and developed to support the engineering decision process.
Main article: List of systems engineering universities
Education in systems engineering is often seen as an extension to the regular engineering courses,[31] reflecting the industry attitude that engineering students need a foundational background in one of the traditional engineering disciplines (e.g. aerospace engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, manufacturing engineering, industrial engineering, chemical engineering)—plus practical, real-world experience to be effective as systems engineers. Undergraduate university programs explicitly in systems engineering are growing in number but remain uncommon, the degrees including such material most often presented as a BS in Industrial Engineering. Typically programs (either by themselves or in combination with interdisciplinary study) are offered beginning at the graduate level in both academic and professional tracks, resulting in the grant of either a MS/MEng or Ph.D./EngD degree.
INCOSE, in collaboration with the Systems Engineering Research Center at Stevens Institute of Technology maintains a regularly updated directory of worldwide academic programs at suitably accredited institutions.[6] As of 2017, it lists over 140 universities in North America offering more than 400 undergraduate and graduate programs in systems engineering. Widespread institutional acknowledgment of the field as a distinct subdiscipline is quite recent; the 2009 edition of the same publication reported the number of such schools and programs at only 80 and 165, respectively.
Education in systems engineering can be taken as systems-centric or domain-centric:
Systems-centric programs treat systems engineering as a separate discipline and most of the courses are taught focusing on systems engineering principles and practice.
Domain-centric programs offer systems engineering as an option that can be exercised with another major field in engineering.
Both of these patterns strive to educate the systems engineer who is able to oversee interdisciplinary projects with the depth required of a core-engineer.[32]
Systems engineering tools are strategies, procedures, and techniques that aid in performing systems engineering on a project or product. The purpose of these tools vary from database management, graphical browsing, simulation, and reasoning, to document production, neutral import/export and more.[33]
Main article: System
There are many definitions of what a system is in the field of systems engineering. Below are a few authoritative definitions:
ANSI/EIA-632-1999: "An aggregation of end products and enabling products to achieve a given purpose."[34]
DAU Systems Engineering Fundamentals: "an integrated composite of people, products, and processes that provide a capability to satisfy a stated need or objective."[35]
IEEE Std 1220-1998: "A set or arrangement of elements and processes that are related and whose behavior satisfies customer/operational needs and provides for life cycle sustainment of the products."[36]
INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook: "homogeneous entity that exhibits predefined behavior in the real world and is composed of heterogeneous parts that do not individually exhibit that behavior and an integrated configuration of components and/or subsystems."[37]
INCOSE: "A system is a construct or collection of different elements that together produce results not obtainable by the elements alone. The elements, or parts, can include people, hardware, software, facilities, policies, and documents; that is, all things required to produce systems-level results. The results include system level qualities, properties, characteristics, functions, behavior and performance. The value added by the system as a whole, beyond that contributed independently by the parts, is primarily created by the relationship among the parts; that is, how they are interconnected."[38]
ISO/IEC 15288:2008: "A combination of interacting elements organized to achieve one or more stated purposes."[39]
NASA Systems Engineering Handbook: "(1) The combination of elements that function together to produce the capability to meet a need. The elements include all hardware, software, equipment, facilities, personnel, processes, and procedures needed for this purpose. (2) The end product (which performs operational functions) and enabling products (which provide life-cycle support services to the operational end products) that make up a system."[40]
Systems engineering processes encompass all creative, manual and technical activities necessary to define the product and which need to be carried out to convert a system definition to a sufficiently detailed system design specification for product manufacture and deployment. Design and development of a system can be divided into four stages, each with different definitions:[41]
Task definition (informative definition)
Conceptual stage (cardinal definition)
Design stage (formative definition)
Implementation stage (manufacturing definition)
Depending on their application, tools are used for various stages of the systems engineering process:[23]
Programming in System Engineering
ise@israschool.org.il
Write an academic argument to convince high school student why a system engineer need to know programming?
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Title: The Vital Role of Programming Skills for System Engineers
Introduction:
In today's rapidly advancing technological landscape, the role of a system engineer has become increasingly complex and interconnected. These professionals are responsible for designing, developing, and maintaining intricate systems that range from spacecraft and autonomous vehicles to critical infrastructure and software applications. To excel in this role and meet the evolving demands of the industry, it is crucial for system engineers to possess programming skills. In this argument, we will explore why programming knowledge is indispensable for a system engineer's success.
1. Enhanced Problem-Solving Abilities:
Programming equips system engineers with a powerful tool for solving complex problems. Whether it's optimizing system performance, debugging errors, or automating processes, programming provides engineers with the ability to break down challenges into manageable steps and develop efficient solutions. These problem-solving skills are invaluable when designing and maintaining large-scale systems.
2. Seamless Integration and Interoperability:
In modern systems, diverse components must seamlessly interact and communicate. A system engineer who understands programming can develop custom software interfaces and middleware to facilitate this integration. This knowledge ensures that various subsystems and components can work harmoniously, leading to improved system reliability and performance.
3. System Monitoring and Control:
Programming enables system engineers to create monitoring and control systems that allow them to observe a system's behavior in real-time. This capability is crucial for identifying issues, optimizing performance, and implementing necessary adjustments promptly. For example, in autonomous vehicles, programmers can develop algorithms to process sensor data and make real-time decisions for safe navigation.
4. Adaptability to Evolving Technologies:
Technology evolves rapidly, and system engineers must adapt to these changes. Knowledge of programming languages and software development methodologies makes it easier for engineers to learn and implement new technologies, ensuring that systems remain up-to-date, secure, and efficient.
5. Efficient Prototyping and Simulation:
Before physical systems are built, engineers often create digital prototypes and simulations. Programming skills are vital for developing these virtual models, allowing engineers to test and refine designs without the need for costly physical prototypes. This approach not only saves time and resources but also facilitates more accurate and innovative system development.
6. Collaboration with Software Developers:
In many engineering projects, system engineers collaborate closely with software developers. By understanding programming, system engineers can communicate effectively with software teams, bridging the gap between hardware and software aspects of a project. This collaboration leads to better-integrated systems and reduces misunderstandings or conflicts between teams.
7. Career Opportunities and Versatility:
System engineers who possess programming skills open doors to a wider range of career opportunities. They can transition into roles that require both system engineering expertise and software development skills, making them more versatile and marketable in the job market.
Conclusion:
In an increasingly interconnected and technology-driven world, the role of a system engineer is more critical than ever before. To excel in this role and contribute effectively to the development of complex systems, programming skills are not just an advantage; they are a necessity. Programming empowers system engineers with enhanced problem-solving abilities, the ability to integrate diverse components, real-time monitoring and control capabilities, adaptability to evolving technologies, efficient prototyping, and collaboration with software developers. Embracing programming knowledge ensures that system engineers are well-equipped to navigate the challenges of today's engineering landscape and drive innovation in the development of sophisticated systems. Therefore, for high school students aspiring to become system engineers, mastering programming is a wise and essential choice.
Control & Electronics in System Engineering
ise@israschool.org.il
Write an academic argument to convince high school student why a system engineer need to know Control and Electronics?
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Title: The Indispensable Role of Control and Electronics Knowledge for System Engineers
Introduction:
In the realm of system engineering, knowledge of control systems and electronics is not just an advantage but a fundamental requirement. System engineers are responsible for designing, developing, and maintaining complex systems that often rely heavily on control mechanisms and electronic components. In this argument, we will explore why an understanding of control and electronics is indispensable for system engineers and how it enhances their capabilities in this multifaceted field.
1. Control Systems Enable Precise Management:
Control systems are the "brains" behind many modern systems, regulating parameters such as temperature, speed, and position. System engineers must understand control theory to design and implement these systems effectively. Whether it's maintaining a constant temperature in a building or ensuring a drone hovers steadily, control systems are integral to achieving precise management.
2. Integration of Electronics:
Modern systems are becoming increasingly electronic in nature. From autonomous vehicles to medical devices, electronics play a vital role in system functionality. System engineers must have knowledge of electronics to integrate sensors, microcontrollers, and other electronic components seamlessly into their designs.
3. Customization and Optimization:
System engineers who understand control and electronics can customize and optimize control algorithms to meet specific requirements. This level of customization is crucial for tailoring systems to perform efficiently and effectively in diverse applications. For instance, in a manufacturing plant, system engineers can fine-tune control systems to maximize production output while minimizing waste.
4. Troubleshooting and Maintenance:
Inevitably, systems encounter issues and require maintenance. Knowledge of electronics and control allows system engineers to diagnose and resolve problems efficiently. This expertise is invaluable in critical situations where system downtime can lead to significant losses or safety concerns.
5. Innovation and System Improvement:
System engineers with control and electronics knowledge are better equipped to innovate and improve existing systems. They can propose enhancements, develop new features, and implement advanced control strategies to make systems more efficient, reliable, and adaptable to changing requirements.
6. Interdisciplinary Collaboration:
System engineers often work in interdisciplinary teams comprising mechanical engineers, software developers, and electrical engineers. An understanding of control and electronics facilitates effective communication and collaboration with team members from diverse backgrounds. It helps bridge the gap between hardware and software aspects of a project, ensuring a more integrated and cohesive system.
7. Career Opportunities and Versatility:
System engineers with expertise in control and electronics open doors to a wide range of career opportunities. They can transition into roles that require both system engineering skills and electronics knowledge, making them versatile and highly sought-after in industries such as robotics, automation, telecommunications, and aerospace.
Conclusion:
Control and electronics knowledge are the bedrock of modern system engineering. They enable precise control, seamless integration of electronic components, customization, troubleshooting, innovation, and effective collaboration within multidisciplinary teams. System engineers who possess expertise in control and electronics are not only well-prepared to tackle the challenges of the engineering world but are also poised for career success and adaptability in an ever-evolving technological landscape. For high school students aspiring to excel in system engineering, acquiring a deep understanding of control and electronics is a prudent choice that will significantly enrich their capabilities in this dynamic and critical field.
Mechanicsl Design in System Engineering
ise@israschool.org.il
Write an academic argument to convince high school student why a system engineer need to know mechanical design?
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Title: The Significance of Mechanical Design Knowledge for System Engineers
Introduction:
System engineering is a multifaceted field that encompasses the design, development, and integration of complex systems. While many aspects of system engineering involve software and electronics, it is equally important for system engineers to have a deep understanding of mechanical design. In this argument, we will elucidate why knowledge of mechanical design is essential for system engineers and how it enriches their capabilities in this diverse field.
1. Comprehensive System Integration:
Modern systems often comprise both electronic and mechanical components. To effectively integrate these elements into a cohesive system, system engineers must comprehend how they interact. Mechanical design knowledge allows them to envision and create physical structures and interfaces that accommodate electronic components seamlessly, leading to better system functionality.
2. Robustness and Reliability:
Mechanical design principles emphasize structural integrity and durability. System engineers with knowledge of mechanical design can ensure that the physical aspects of a system, such as enclosures, mounting brackets, and connectors, are robust and capable of withstanding environmental stresses, ensuring the system's reliability and longevity.
3. Efficient Prototyping and Testing:
Mechanical design skills enable system engineers to create physical prototypes and models of their systems. These prototypes are invaluable for testing and validation, as they allow engineers to assess the practical aspects of a system, such as ergonomics, user interaction, and physical constraints, which are difficult to evaluate solely through simulations or drawings.
4. Collaboration and Communication:
In multidisciplinary engineering teams, effective communication is paramount. System engineers who understand mechanical design can communicate more effectively with mechanical engineers and designers, streamlining the collaborative process. This shared understanding fosters a more cohesive approach to system development and mitigates potential conflicts between different engineering disciplines.
5. Innovation and Problem Solving:
Knowledge of mechanical design expands a system engineer's problem-solving toolkit. When faced with design challenges, engineers with mechanical design expertise can devise innovative solutions that involve the physical aspects of a system. This creativity often leads to more efficient and elegant designs.
6. Field-Specific Applications:
In certain industries, such as aerospace, automotive, robotics, and industrial automation, mechanical design plays a central role. System engineers in these fields benefit immensely from mechanical design knowledge as it aligns with the core requirements and standards of these industries. For example, aerospace system engineers need to understand mechanical aspects for designing aircraft and spacecraft systems.
7. Career Advancement and Versatility:
System engineers with mechanical design skills are often more versatile and marketable in their careers. They can transition into roles that require both system engineering expertise and mechanical design proficiency, opening up diverse opportunities and career pathways.
Conclusion:
The role of a system engineer is dynamic and multifaceted, involving the integration of various components to create functional and efficient systems. Mechanical design knowledge is not merely a valuable asset but a necessity for system engineers. It empowers them to envision, prototype, test, and communicate effectively in multidisciplinary teams. Moreover, mechanical design expertise equips system engineers to address real-world challenges, innovate, and enhance the robustness and reliability of the systems they develop. For high school students aspiring to become proficient system engineers, acquiring knowledge in mechanical design is a prudent choice that will significantly enrich their capabilities in this dynamic field.
Main article: Abstract model
Models play important and diverse roles in systems engineering. A model can be defined in several ways, including:[42]
An abstraction of reality designed to answer specific questions about the real world
An imitation, analogue, or representation of a real world process or structure; or
A conceptual, mathematical, or physical tool to assist a decision maker.
Together, these definitions are broad enough to encompass physical engineering models used in the verification of a system design, as well as schematic models like a functional flow block diagram and mathematical (i.e. quantitative) models used in the trade study process. This section focuses on the last.[42]
The main reason for using mathematical models and diagrams in trade studies is to provide estimates of system effectiveness, performance or technical attributes, and cost from a set of known or estimable quantities. Typically, a collection of separate models is needed to provide all of these outcome variables. The heart of any mathematical model is a set of meaningful quantitative relationships among its inputs and outputs. These relationships can be as simple as adding up constituent quantities to obtain a total, or as complex as a set of differential equations describing the trajectory of a spacecraft in a gravitational field. Ideally, the relationships express causality, not just correlation.[42] Furthermore, key to successful systems engineering activities are also the methods with which these models are efficiently and effectively managed and used to simulate the systems. However, diverse domains often present recurring problems of modeling and simulation for systems engineering, and new advancements are aiming to cross-fertilize methods among distinct scientific and engineering communities, under the title of 'Modeling & Simulation-based Systems Engineering'.[43][page needed]
Initially, when the primary purpose of a systems engineer is to comprehend a complex problem, graphic representations of a system are used to communicate a system's functional and data requirements.[44] Common graphical representations include:
Data flow diagram (DFD)
A graphical representation relates the various subsystems or parts of a system through functions, data, or interfaces. Any or each of the above methods are used in an industry based on its requirements. For instance, the N2 chart may be used where interfaces between systems is important. Part of the design phase is to create structural and behavioral models of the system.
Once the requirements are understood, it is now the responsibility of a systems engineer to refine them, and to determine, along with other engineers, the best technology for a job. At this point starting with a trade study, systems engineering encourages the use of weighted choices to determine the best option. A decision matrix, or Pugh method, is one way (QFD is another) to make this choice while considering all criteria that are important. The trade study in turn informs the design, which again affects graphic representations of the system (without changing the requirements). In an SE process, this stage represents the iterative step that is carried out until a feasible solution is found. A decision matrix is often populated using techniques such as statistical analysis, reliability analysis, system dynamics (feedback control), and optimization methods.
Systems Modeling Language[edit]
Main article: Systems Modeling Language
Systems Modeling Language (SysML), a modeling language used for systems engineering applications, supports the specification, analysis, design, verification and validation of a broad range of complex systems.[45]
Lifecycle Modeling Language[edit]
Main article: Lifecycle Modeling Language
Lifecycle Modeling Language (LML), is an open-standard modeling language designed for systems engineering that supports the full lifecycle: conceptual, utilization, support and retirement stages.[46]
Many related fields may be considered tightly coupled to systems engineering. The following areas have contributed to the development of systems engineering as a distinct entity:
Cognitive systems engineering (CSE) is a specific approach to the description and analysis of human-machine systems or sociotechnical systems.[47] The three main themes of CSE are how humans cope with complexity, how work is accomplished by the use of artifacts, and how human-machine systems and socio-technical systems can be described as joint cognitive systems. CSE has since its beginning become a recognized scientific discipline, sometimes also referred to as cognitive engineering. The concept of a Joint Cognitive System (JCS) has in particular become widely used as a way of understanding how complex socio-technical systems can be described with varying degrees of resolution. The more than 20 years of experience with CSE has been described extensively.[48][49]
Main article: Configuration management
Like systems engineering, configuration management as practiced in the defense and aerospace industry is a broad systems-level practice. The field parallels the taskings of systems engineering; where systems engineering deals with requirements development, allocation to development items and verification, configuration management deals with requirements capture, traceability to the development item, and audit of development item to ensure that it has achieved the desired functionality that systems engineering and/or Test and Verification Engineering have proven out through objective testing.
Main article: Control engineering
Control engineering and its design and implementation of control systems, used extensively in nearly every industry, is a large sub-field of systems engineering. The cruise control on an automobile and the guidance system for a ballistic missile are two examples. Control systems theory is an active field of applied mathematics involving the investigation of solution spaces and the development of new methods for the analysis of the control process.
Main article: Industrial engineering
Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering that concerns the development, improvement, implementation and evaluation of integrated systems of people, money, knowledge, information, equipment, energy, material and process. Industrial engineering draws upon the principles and methods of engineering analysis and synthesis, as well as mathematical, physical and social sciences together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design to specify, predict, and evaluate results obtained from such systems.
Production Systems Engineering (PSE) is an emerging branch of Engineering intended to uncover fundamental principles of production systems and utilize them for analysis, continuous improvement, and design. [50]
Main article: Interface design
Interface design and its specification are concerned with assuring that the pieces of a system connect and inter-operate with other parts of the system and with external systems as necessary. Interface design also includes assuring that system interfaces be able to accept new features, including mechanical, electrical and logical interfaces, including reserved wires, plug-space, command codes and bits in communication protocols. This is known as extensibility. Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) or Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is another aspect of interface design, and is a critical aspect of modern systems engineering. Systems engineering principles are applied in the design of communication protocols for local area networks and wide area networks.
Main article: Mechatronic engineering
Mechatronic engineering, like systems engineering, is a multidisciplinary field of engineering that uses dynamical systems modeling to express tangible constructs. In that regard it is almost indistinguishable from Systems Engineering, but what sets it apart is the focus on smaller details rather than larger generalizations and relationships. As such, both fields are distinguished by the scope of their projects rather than the methodology of their practice.
Main article: Operations research
Operations research supports systems engineering. Operations research, briefly, is concerned with the optimization of a process under multiple constraints.[51]
Main article: Performance engineering
Performance engineering is the discipline of ensuring a system meets customer expectations for performance throughout its life. Performance is usually defined as the speed with which a certain operation is executed, or the capability of executing a number of such operations in a unit of time. Performance may be degraded when operations queued to execute is throttled by limited system capacity. For example, the performance of a packet-switched network is characterized by the end-to-end packet transit delay, or the number of packets switched in an hour. The design of high-performance systems uses analytical or simulation modeling, whereas the delivery of high-performance implementation involves thorough performance testing. Performance engineering relies heavily on statistics, queueing theory and probability theory for its tools and processes.
Program management (or programme management) has many similarities with systems engineering, but has broader-based origins than the engineering ones of systems engineering. Project management is also closely related to both program management and systems engineering.
Proposal engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to design, construct, and operate a cost-effective proposal development system. Basically, proposal engineering uses the "systems engineering process" to create a cost-effective proposal and increase the odds of a successful proposal.
Main article: Reliability engineering
Reliability engineering is the discipline of ensuring a system meets customer expectations for reliability throughout its life (i.e. it does not fail more frequently than expected). Next to prediction of failure, it is just as much about prevention of failure. Reliability engineering applies to all aspects of the system. It is closely associated with maintainability, availability (dependability or RAMS preferred by some), and logistics engineering. Reliability engineering is always a critical component of safety engineering, as in failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) and hazard fault tree analysis, and of security engineering.
Main article: Risk management
Risk management, the practice of assessing and dealing with risk is one of the interdisciplinary parts of Systems Engineering. In development, acquisition, or operational activities, the inclusion of risk in tradeoff with cost, schedule, and performance features, involves the iterative complex configuration management of traceability and evaluation to the scheduling and requirements management across domains and for the system lifecycle that requires the interdisciplinary technical approach of systems engineering. Systems Engineering has Risk Management define, tailor, implement, and monitor a structured process for risk management which is integrated to the overall effort.[52]
The techniques of safety engineering may be applied by non-specialist engineers in designing complex systems to minimize the probability of safety-critical failures. The "System Safety Engineering" function helps to identify "safety hazards" in emerging designs, and may assist with techniques to "mitigate" the effects of (potentially) hazardous conditions that cannot be designed out of systems.
Main article: Schedule (project management)
Scheduling is one of the systems engineering support tools as a practice and item in assessing interdisciplinary concerns under configuration management. In particular the direct relationship of resources, performance features, and risk to duration of a task or the dependency links among tasks and impacts across the system lifecycle are systems engineering concerns.
Main article: Security engineering
Security engineering can be viewed as an interdisciplinary field that integrates the community of practice for control systems design, reliability, safety and systems engineering. It may involve such sub-specialties as authentication of system users, system targets and others: people, objects and processes.
Main article: Software engineering
From its beginnings, software engineering has helped shape modern systems engineering practice. The techniques used in the handling of the complexities of large software-intensive systems have had a major effect on the shaping and reshaping of the tools, methods and processes of Systems Engineering.
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