Medieval philosophy

Four sub-traditions of Medieval philosophy

Its four sub-traditions [trəˈdɪʃənz] are (1) ‘Arab’ [ˈærəb] philosophy—which took place in Islamic [ɪzˈlæmɪk] lands and was written [ˈrɪtn] usually in Arabic [ˈærəbɪk], though [ðəʊ] sometimes in Persian [ˈpɜːʃən]; (2) ‘Jewish’ [ˈʤu(ː)ɪʃ] philosophy— the work of Jews [ʤuːz] in Islamic and Christian [ˈkrɪstjən] countries, written in Arabic or Hebrew [ˈhiːbruː]; (3) ‘Latin’ [ˈlætɪn] philosophy—produced in the countries of Christian Europe where Latin was the main language of higher learning and usually, though not always, written in Latin; and (4) ‘Byzantine’ [bɪˈzæntaɪn] philosophy—written in Greek [griːk] in the Christian empire [ˈɛmpaɪə] of Byzantium [bɪˈzæntɪəm].

The four traditions are interlinked [ˌɪntə(ː)ˈlɪŋkt] so closely [ˈkləʊsli] that they are best understood as a whole. First, all use a common heritage [ˈhɛrɪtɪʤ] of ancient Greek philosophy. Second, in their development, the traditions are interconnected. Third, all four traditions belong to cultures dominated by a monotheistic [ˌmɒnəʊθiːˈɪstɪk], revealed [rɪˈviːld] religion: Islam [ˈɪzlɑːm], Judaism [ˈʤuːdeɪɪzm] or Christianity [ˌkrɪstɪˈænɪti].

Medieval Arab philosophy

Avicenna [ˌævᵻˈsɛnə] succeeded to his own satisfaction in harmonizing [ˈhɑːmənaɪzɪŋ] the Koran [kɒˈrɑːn] with a neoplatonic [pləˈtɒnɪk] doctrine of the emanation [ˌɛməˈneɪʃən] of all things from God, worked out in Aristotelian terms. Averroes [əˈvɛroʊˌiːz] was regarded throughout the Middle Ages [ˈeɪʤɪz] as the Commentator [ˈkɒmɛnteɪtə] of Aristotle par excellence [pɑːr] [ˈɛksəlans], but his adherence [ədˈhɪərəns] to the theory of the eternity [i(ː)ˈtɜːnɪti] of matter and his denial [dɪˈnaɪəl] of personal immortality [ˌɪmɔːˈtælɪti] were incompatible [ˌɪnkəmˈpætəbl] with orthodox [ˈɔːθədɒks] Islam.

Medieval Jewish philosophy

Solomon ibn Gabirol [ˈsɒləmən ˈɪ.bn ˌgə.bi.ˈrɒːl], the author [ˈɔːθə] of The Source of Life, was thoroughly neoplatonic in spirit [ˈspɪrɪt]. Maimonides [maɪˈmɒnɪdiːz] wrote The Guide of the Perplexed [pəˈplɛkst], which is the most remarkable development of Aristotelian philosophy in harmony [ˈhɑːməni] with Jewish monotheism [ˈmɒnəʊθiːˌɪzm] and had considerable influence on Aquinas [əˈkwaɪnəs].

Philosophy in the medieval Latin West

Philosophy in the medieval Latin West begins in the late eighth [eɪtθ] century [ˈsɛnʧʊri]. Philosophical notions persisted [pəˈsɪstɪd] through the study of the Fathers, especially St. Augustine [seint ɔːˈɡʌstᵻn], and through the reading of Boethius [boʊˈiːθiəs]. St. Augustine provided a role model in that he thought deeply, systematically [ˌsɪstɪˈmætɪkəli], and in a philosophical way about Christianity. Boethius’ commentaries [ˈkɒməntəriz] on Aristotle’s logical works, and on the Neoplatonist Porphyry’s [ˈpɔːrfəri] introduction (Isagoge [aiseˈgoʤi]) to the Categories [ˈkætɪgəriz] of Aristotle, were immensely [ɪˈmɛnsli] influential in shaping the technical [ˈtɛknɪkəl] Latin vocabulary [vəʊˈkæbjʊləri]. The neoplatonic system of Eriugena [ɛruˈdʒinə] in the ninth [naɪnθ] century was an isolated [ˈaɪsəleɪtɪd] product. The twelfth century was the period of the recovery of the text of Aristotle, but already the need of more material for study was evident in the new speculative [ˈspɛkjʊlətɪv] urge [ɜːʤ] of Anselm [ˈænselm], the originator [əˈrɪʤɪneɪtə] of the ontological argument. The brilliant [ˈbrɪljənt] speculative mind of Abelard [ˈæb.ə.lɑːrd] was partly stultified [ˈstʌltɪfaɪd] by the lack of material for reflection and criticism [ˈkrɪtɪsɪzm]. The thirteenth [ˈθɜːˈtiːnθ] century was the most important in medieval philosophy because it was the period of the critical assimilation [əˌsɪmɪˈleɪʃ(ə)n] of Aristotle. The more conservative [kənˈsɜːvətɪv] theologians [θɪəˈləʊʤjənz] (such as Bonaventura [ˌbɒnəvɛnˈtjʊərə]) made use of the new Aristotelian knowledge and method while keeping them in strict subordination [səˌbɔːdɪˈneɪʃən] to Christian theology [θɪˈɒləʤi]. Albert [ˈælbət] the Great gave himself wholeheartedly [ˈhəʊlˈhɑːtɪdli] to the new learning, and his disciple [dɪˈsaɪpl] Aquinas provided the classical medieval synthesis [ˈsɪnθɪsɪs] of Aristotelian philosophy and Christian theology. The nearest [ˈnɪərɪst] comparable [ˈkɒmpərəbl] synthesis is that of Duns Scotus [dʌnz ˈskoʊtəs] in the next generation. In the fourteenth century the criticism of William [ˈwɪljəm] of Ockham [ˈɒkəm] brought philosophy to a more completely empirical starring [ˈstɑːrɪŋ] point.

‘Byzantine’ philosophy

John Damascene [ˈdæmasi:n] composed a Fount [faʊnt] of Knowing that contains: (1) a dictionary[ˈdɪkʃ(ə)n(ə)ri] of technical terms ranging from Aristotelian logic to Trinitarian [ˌtrɪnɪˈteərɪən] theology, (2) a critical history and doctrinal [dɒkˈtraɪnl] analysis of Christian heresies [ˈhɛrəsiz], and (3) a compendium[kəmˈpɛndɪəm] of orthodox theology comprising [kəmˈpraɪzɪŋ], among much else, elementary lessons in Aristotelian philosophy. Michael Psellos [maikl pse’lo:s] wrote a Teaching of All Sorts that displays an unusual knowledge of pagan [ˈpeɪgən] Neoplatonism and even an interest in philosophical astrology [əsˈtrɒləʤi] and magic [ˈmæʤɪk].

SOURCES

The Routledge History of Philosophy. Volume 3. Medieval philosophy. Routledge 1998

The concise encyclopedia of western philosophy/ edited by J. O. Urmson and Jonathan Rée.—3rd ed. Routledge. 2005

Encyclopedia of Philosophy. In 10 vol./ed. by D. Borchert. Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 2006.

Oxford Companion to Philosophy / ed. by T. Honderich. Oxford University Press, 1995.