[Learning English] Writing Academic Papers
ー学術論文の書き方:伝える技術と論理の磨き方ー
[Learning English] Writing Academic Papers
ー学術論文の書き方:伝える技術と論理の磨き方ー
英語支援スタッフ 国際人材養成プログラム 国際社会科学専攻博士課程
Lo Helix(ロー・ヒリックス)(2025年3月31日)
We witnessed an exceptional increase in the number of democracies between the 1970s and the 1990s, which is known as the third wave of democracy (Huntington, 1991). I also saw studies discussing the possibility of a fourth wave of democracy in recent years (Ohlsson, 2022), However, some researchers argue that the promotion of liberal values and democracy now faces increasing challenges, particularly due to the great authoritarian regimes who promote autocratic values (Beckley & Brands, 2023). Investigations also reported their studies’ results regarding concerns that a long arm of certain authoritarian regimes have been trying to influence the development and behavior of society and citizens beyond their own territories (see Reuters, n.d.). Why did the authoritarian spread autocratic values? How did the authoritarian countries influence the living style of citizens in the free world? How should we face these challenges?
To answer these questions, I used the data published by SSS institution (pseudonym). The data include a wide range of information such as the democratic performance of government institutions in the country and the supporting rate of citizens towards autocratic values. I assume that Factor AA has a negative relationship with Factor BB. I also believe that the long-arm practices imposed by the authoritarian countries have influences on both the locals and the immigrants. I found that regions that have more intense interactions with the authoritarian countries are more likely to be influenced by autocratic values. I also found that the values of the citizens there were negatively influenced as well. I speculate that this is because of OOOO reasons, so that the authoritarian countries find a way to spread autocratic values. In this way, they try to secure their power. In this way, I suggest the countries reconsider their diplomatic strategies with authoritarian countries.
(Sample Text. Created by author.)
The text shown above is an example of academic paragraphs. Normally, academic works should be written formally. Although researchers may have collected the data, performed the analysis, and written the paper, it is generally better to avoid using “I” or “we” to minimize subjectivity. Hence, “We witnessed an exceptional increase in the number of democracies between the 1970s and the 1990s” should be revised into “The world witnessed an exceptional increase in the number of democracies between the 1970s and the 1990s”; “I also saw studies discussing the possibility of a fourth wave of democracy in recent years” should be revised into “Some studies also discussed the possibility of a fourth wave of democracy in the contemporary era.”
While using “I” or “we” is not grammatically incorrect, these pronouns are less preferred in academic works (Exceptions exist, such as when reporting findings from fieldwork). Therefore, there are a few more informal phrases in the sample text that require revision. For example, “so that” should be replaced by “hence” or “consequently”; “In this way” should be replaced by “By this means”; “I suggest” should be replaced by “This study suggests”; “I assume” should be replaced by “This study hypothesizes”.
Last but not least, two additional points should be noted when writing academic papers. First, it is better to avoid writing sentences in a tedious and repeated way, regardless of whether it is academic work. One example shown in the text is “Investigations also reported their studies’ results regarding concerns that…”. The phrase “Investigations also reported” has a similar implication to “reported their studies’ results regarding”. Therefore, it should be revised into “Investigations reported that…”. Second, the use of “a” and “the” should be carefully considered. When using “a”, it implies that the item is one of many. However, using "the" implies a specific item that is either well-known or has been mentioned previously. In the sample text, “a long arm” should be revised into “the long arm” since the text is specifically to the means that adopted by the authoritarian regimes.
Writing academic papers is fun and captivating. Hope you enjoy it too.
References
Beckley, M., & Brands, H. (2023). China's threat to global democracy. Journal of Democracy, 34(1), 65-79.
Huntington, S. P. (1991). The third wave (Vol. 199, No. 1). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Ohlsson, B. (2022). 2022 the fourth wave of democracy? National Democratic Institute. https://www.ndi.org/our-stories/2022-fourth-wave-democracy.
Reuters. (n.d.). How Beijing is imposing its will far beyond its borders The Long Arm of China.https://www.reuters.com/investigates/section/the-long-arm-of-china/
[日本語訳]
学術論文の書き方:伝える技術と論理の磨き方
私たちは、1970年代から1990年代にかけて、民主主義の数が急増する様子を目の当たりにした。これを「民主主義の第三波」と呼ぶ(Huntington, 1991)。最近では、私は第四波の民主主義の可能性について議論している研究も読んだことがある(Ohlsson, 2022)。しかし、いくつかの研究者は、リベラルな価値観や民主主義の推進が、特に強大な権威主義政権による独裁的な価値観の推進により、ますます大きな課題に直面していると主張している(Beckley & Brands, 2023)。調査によれは、権威主義政権が自国の領土を超えて、他国の社会や市民の発展や行動に影響を与えようとしているという懸念が報告されている(Reuters, n.d.)。なぜ権威主義政権は独裁的な価値観を広がるのか?権威主義国家は、自由な世界の市民の生活や価値観にどのような影響を与えたのか?私たちは、これらの課題にどう向き合うべきか?
これらの質問に答えるために、私たちはSSS Institution(仮名)のデータを分析した。このデータには、政府機関の民主的なパフォーマンスや、市民が独裁的価値に対する支持率など、さまざまな情報が含まれている。Factor AAがFactor BBと負の関係があると、私はそう仮定している。また、私は権威主義国家によって課せられた「長い腕」の実践が、他国の住民や移民に影響を与えていると考えている。私は、権威主義国家との関わりが強いほど、独裁的な価値観に影響を受ける可能性が高いことが分かった。また、私はその地域の市民の価値観にも負の影響があるという結果も得られた。私は[XXXX]という理由による可能性を考えている。その結果、権威主義政権が独裁的な価値観を広める方法を見つけていると思った。こうやって、権威主義政権は自分の権力を確保しようとしている。そのため、私は、民主主義国は権威主義国家との外交戦略を再考するべきだと提案する。
(例文;作者による作成)
上記に示した文章は、学術論文の例である。一般的に、学術的な文章はフォーマルに書くべきだ。データの収集と分析、そして論文を書いたのは私たちだけど、主観を抑えるために、「I」や「we」を使わないほうがいい。なので、文章に書いた「We witnessed an exceptional increase in the number of democracies between the 1970s and the 1990s」は「The world witnessed an exceptional increase in the number of democracies between the 1970s and the 1990s」に、「I also saw studies discussing the possibility of a fourth wave of democracy in recent years」は「Some studies also discussed the possibility of a fourth wave of democracy in the contemporary era」に修正すべきである。
「I」や「we」を使うことは文法的には問題がないが、学術的な文章ではあまり勧められていない。(けど、例外もある。著者の書き方によって異なる表現もあるが、その一つがフィールドワークの結果を報告する場合だ。)なので、例文の中で修正すべきフォーマルではない表現がいくつある。例えば、「so that」は「hence」や「consequently」に、「In this way」は「By this means」に、「I suggest」は「This study suggests」に、「I assume」は「This study hypothesizes」に訂正すべきである。
最後に、学術論文を書く際に注意すべき2つの点がある。第一に、学術論文であるかどうかに関わらず、意味が同じで繰り返しの多い文章を書かないほうがいい。文章に示された例の一つは「Investigations also reported their studies’ results regarding concerns that…」だ。「Investigations also reported」という表現は、「reported their studies’ results regarding」と似たような意味を持っている。なので、「Investigations reported that…」に修正すべきだ。第二に、「a」と「the」の使い方に注意するべき。「a」を使う場合、その「a」はただ多くの「a」の中の一つであることを意味する。一方、「the」を使う場合、それは特定のもの、もしくは既に述べたものやよく知られているものを指している。文章には、「a long arm」を「the long arm」に修正すべきだ。なぜなら、その文章は権威主義政権が採用した手段を具体的に指しているからだ。
学術論文を書くことは、楽しく興味深いものです。皆さまにも是非楽しんでいただければ幸いです。
References
Beckley, M., & Brands, H. (2023). China's threat to global democracy. Journal of Democracy, 34(1), 65-79.
Huntington, S. P. (1991). The third wave (Vol. 199, No. 1). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Ohlsson, B. (2022). 2022 the fourth wave of democracy? National Democratic Institute. https://www.ndi.org/our-stories/2022-fourth-wave-democracy.
Reuters. (n.d.). How Beijing is imposing its will far beyond its borders The Long Arm of China.https://www.reuters.com/investigates/section/the-long-arm-of-china/.