1. Introducing Family Diversity
What comes to your mind when you hear Family? Some people imagine a definition of it, others think of particular people in their lives. Or you’ve never thought about it because it is too natural. Family is one of the smallest units of society. Many people think of making family as a goal or point of passage in their lives. Furthermore, many people seem to share the image of an ideal family.
Look at this picture.(*1-1)
Of course, I wouldn’t like to say it is wrong or criticize it as being typical thought. But there are moments that reveal people’s unconscious bias which arises from their typical thoughts and that adversely affect other people. A good example of this is the case of an elementary school friend of mine. She was hurt by people sometimes calling her “No father child” just because she was raised in single parent family. I know some of the adults who called her so and they are not awful people, but one thing is certain. They see double parents as normal family style. Why do they do so? I think it is just that the majority of people tend to choose the style.
This idea generated a new question for me: Don't some members of minority groups face challenges when they make their families? People classified as minority often suffer from a lack of policies or systems appropriate to them. Considering that lots of people regard making a family as a key purpose of their lives, it is unfair that a certain minority of people have trouble in having families in ways that are different from the majority. In particular, I am interested in the cases of children who cannot live with their own birth parents and families made by members of sexual minority communities. So, in this report, I will investigate how to guarantee equality of making family for all the people in Japan through looking at the family types they choose and issues they face.
This is a screenshot of the top page coming up when I search for “家族” (family). You can see a mother and a father with one or two kids and sometimes grandparents in every picture. It proves lots of people have almost the same image of family.
2. Social Care in Japan
(1) Institutional Care and Home Care
Social Care for children (社会的養護 in Japanese) is the system by which the government supports children who cannot live with their parents. According to Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, it aims at “The best profit for children” and “Raising children in whole society”. (*2-1) Look at this slide from my presentation on research cycle 2. (*2-2). The child protection system in Japan
is mainly divided into 2 types, Home Care and Institutional Care. Home care includes adoption and fostering. While adoption is primarily intended to create a legal parent-children relationship, fostering involves no legal relationships and mean raising children as a "Fostering parent" by receiving a mandate. Adoption also has 2 types, regular and special. In regular adoption, adoptive parents make a legal relationship with the children but the children also keep a connection with their birth parents. By contrast, the connection between children and birth parents is dissolved in special adoption.(*2-3)
Now, the number of children under the protection in the social care system in Japan totals about 45,000, of which approximately 6000 children live in home care. (*2-4) In fact, the rate of home care in Japan is extremely low. Morevoer, the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child officially made the following observation care for children in Japan in 2010:
Children without parental care
52. The Committee notes with concern the lack of a policy on alternative, family-based care for children without parental care, the increase in the number of children taken into care away from their families, the inadequate standards of many institutions, in spite of efforts to provide small-group and family-type care, and the reportedly widespread abuse of children in alternative care facilities. In this regard, the Committee notes the establishment of a complaints procedure which, regrettably, has not been widely implemented. The Committee welcomes the fact that foster parents receive mandatory training and receive an increased allowance, but is concerned that some categories of foster parents are not financially supported.
(*2-5) Report of Committee on the Rights of the Child Fifty-fourth session CRC/C/JPN/CO/3
Professor Hiroyasu Hayashi from Japan Women’s University seem to have a similar opinion. He explains that “Home is an important place for children to get living skills and the ability for independence in the future. Adoption is to provide an environment like home for children who cannot live with their birth parents.”(*2-6) Then, in 2017, the Japanese government made a new policy which set the goal of 75% of children in protection (over 6 years old) being raised in foster homes within in 7 years. (*2-7)
(＊2-8) This chart shows percentage of family-based care in some developed countries in 2010.
However, the goals that the government set may be too difficult to attain. According to Professor Yoshio Kusama from Tohoku Fukushi University, “Government policy is right, but time planning is too rushed.” (*2-9) I agree with this idea, and I think the government should find another way in case they cannot achieve their goals and social care remains in the same situation as before the UN made their recommendations.
(2) Prejudice and Discrimination to Children in Social Care
When thinking about social care, appealing to the population to try to change the situation seems to be not enough. Sadly, many people don’t know well or have very little interest in social care although the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare defines it as a system of “Raising children in the whole society" as I mentioned above. This situation might lead to discrimination or prejudice.
Some people from institutions seemed to undergo discrimination in job interviews. In a book written about children speaking about their lives in institutions, "子どもが語る施設の暮らし", in 1999, a boy said "A friend of mine was refused a job at a part-time job interview just because he lived in institution. I cannot forgive it because my brother faced bullying for same reason." (*2-10) Keiko Hayashi, head of Bridge for Smile, an NPO organization to support children leaving institutions to start in life, is one of the people who know about it. She referred to episode 10 years ago, and pointed out it may be because people from institutions were regarded as a "risk" in banking facilities. "Now, it is prohibited to ask for personal information having the possibility to cause social discrimination, like birth background, or one's parents, for acceptance", she said." In another situation, it is not rare for people from institutions to be suspected when money disappears in the workplace."(*2-11)
Looking at other cases, some people think children in institutions cause social harm because they are different from children in families. For example, construction of an institution in Gifu prefecture in 2017 was canceled because of a campaign of opposition by local residents. They argued that the children who lived in it would have a bad effect on the local public school, even though there was no evidence. (*2-12) After a similar thing occurred in Tokyo in 2016, Somei Muto, the vice-president of 全国児童養護施設協議会 (All Japan Child Institution Conference), and at the same time the president of an infant institution, explained, “The institution is not special place because it is just a children’s home. They normally have breakfast and go to school, and do their homework or reading books and so on after coming back. When people imagine they are full of violence and poverty that is 30 years ago. Never look at children with bias.” (*2-13)
(3) Not "Institutional Care VS Home Care"
So far, you may be able to find the problems of Social Care in Japan. Most of children under social care have to live in institution, there are discrimination and prejudice to children in institution and Japanese government cannot meet UN criteria that criticise. In other words, we should curve institutional care because it is wrong and home care is right? I know UN suggestion is international standard in these days, but I don’t think home care is always better for every child than institutional.
“It is not a simple story “Institution is bad, home is good”, but difficult because we should make policy and system based on what is good for each child,” Megumi Nakamura said, according to UMU. (*2-14) She grew up in an institution and now is the sub-delegate of Children’s Views & Voices, which provides a place to stay for people through social care. “But, existing system 90%-institution and 10% home care definitely cannot meet needs of children. ” She also says that family is one of the systems in which people support each other to live and it is her peers that she was raised together with in the institution that are family for her. Similarly, a man reared in an institution introduced on the NHK show ねほりんぱほりん (Nehorin-Pahorin) said that they choose family differently from children in traditional family type. “We can see blood type as well as staff and company in institutions as family. It is our right… normal children can’t.” (*2-15) Institutions are not always bad. Moreover, Professor Hayashi (mentioned in 2.(1)) also said, “Age or environment of children who need social care is diverse and their requirements are different.”
In other words, the actual social care system has to be changed at least to meet needs of children not to try to catch up with the international standard.
3. People in Sexual Minorities Making Families in Japan
A sexual minority is a group whose sexual identity, orientation or practices differ from the majority of the surrounding society. For biological reasons, many people in sexual minorities face difficulties to have a child. In this report, I especially refer to family-making by same-sex couples and transgender people.
(1) Same-sex Couples Making Families
A same-sex couple is couple in which there is a relationship between two men or between two women.
• Marriage: In Japan, as you know, same-sex couples are not allowed in law. According to Waki Toya from Osaka University, the Japanese legal system doesn’t support same-sex marriage because Article 24 of the Constitution of Japan defines marriage as concluded “Only by accord of BOTH SEXES”. For another reason, marriage is explained as the “Psychological and physical connection between A MAN and A WOMAN through life” in a commonly accepted theory. Then, it is said that some same-sex couples who use regular adoption as a substitute for marriage to get legal protection exist in Japan. (*3-1)
• Having a child: There are mainly three types of way for same-sex couples to have children. One is with the children by a former marriage. This way has a problem that a partner cannot have parent's right legally because marriage is not allowed.
Another way is by ART (Assisted Reproductive Technology). This includes donor insemination and host surrogacy (still not allowed in Japan), so it is similar to a way for heterosexual couples who have infertility problems. However, same-sex couples tend to face other challenges in Japan. For example, they can't take medical instruction for insemination because it is only allowed for heterosexual couples (including common law marriage). In NHK's Ohayo Nippon news programme on February 7th 2018, obstetricians and gynecologists pointed out risks like infection by no sperm examination. This news also introduced a lesbian couple who tried insemination by themselves using the sperm of a donor on date of ovulation to try to have a baby. They said, “Although we did this on our own as a last resort, we would like to get medical attention.” A reporter said that same-sex couples also have trouble to find sperm donors because there is no cryobank in the country and less understanding prevents their family or friends from donating.(*3-2) In addition, this way has the problem that a partner does not have the legal right to be a parent, either.
A third way is by adoption or fostering. People in sexual minorities have used these systems since the 1980s. (*3-3) However, same-sex couples cannot adopt children in Japan because that is only allowed for married couples by Civil Law. Fostering isn't prohibited for same-sex couples, but it's not common because of less understanding in society. Furthermore, fostering is on consignment to raise children under 18 years old without legal filiation. (*3-4)
As seen above, having children for same-sex couples is very difficult in Japan.
(2) Transgender People Making Families
The word "transgender" indicates people who have a gender identity that differs from their biological sex or the sex they were assigned at birth. In Japan, transgender people can reassign their gender if they meet certain conditions. However, they are extremely exacting and are often criticised especially for including sterilization. That is one of the reasons there are transgender people who don't change their gender legally and live as the sex they want to be treated as in a real life setting.
• Marriage: In the case of transgender people who have reassigned their gender and also have partners of the opposite sex, marriage formalities are fairly simple. It is the same as heterosexual couples because they are treated as having changed their gender legally after gender-reassignment. By way of contrast, non gender-reassigned transgender people who have partners of the same sex as their legal sex cannot marry. That is because it is seen as same-sex marriage.
• Having a child: There are three ways (Children by a former marriage, ART, Adoption or Fostering) in the same way as same-sex couples. Especially, non gender-reassigned people who have biological same-sex partners share equivalent troubles to other same-sex couples. However, transgender people after gender-reassignment in Japan cannot have babies who inherit their own genes because reassignment requires sterilization. One couple―an FtM (Female to Male) transgender man and a woman―introduced in an article of UMU dithered over which way to try to have a child. “If we use ART, his father or brother will be a sperm donor. But, the former means the child born is his brother biologically. Or in the later case, we must care about feelings of his brother’s partner.”, said the woman. (*3-5) In contrast, problems like this are already solved in some countries which don’t force sterilization for gender-reassignment. For transgender people, the system of reassignment without sterilization not only increases possibilities for utilization of ART but also make natural conception possible in the case of a biologically opposite-sex couple. According to Buzz Feed News, a FtM man had a baby of his male partner under medical supervision in Portland.(*3-6) Similarly, the NY Times introduces an FtM man who happened to have his male partner’s baby in New York. (*3-7)
(3) People in Sexual Minority Parenting Research and Japan
It’s been difficult to get understanding to people in sexual minorities rearing children in most countries, not only in Japan. That is one of the reasons there has been much research about their parenting. People worried that domestic circumstances which are different from traditional ones might do harm to the welfare of the children. As a result, concerns like that are rejected by lots of research which concludes there are no problems with parenting by people in sexual minorities and no connection between parent’s sexuality and the development of a child.(*3-8) Moreover, the research Dr. Simon Crouch from University of Melbourne did suggests children reared by same-sex parents enjoy better levels of health and well-being than their peers from traditional family units. According to ABC news, Dr. Crouch said “Previous research has suggested that parenting roles and work roles, and home roles within same-sex parenting families are more equitably distributed when compared to heterosexual families“, and "What this leads to is a more harmonious family unit and therefore feeding on to better health and well-being."(*3-9)
However, these researches are mainly from other foreign countries. In Japan, we don’t have research about the development and psychological stability of children and parenting ability that compares stereotypical and sexual minority families. There is only a little research, done recently, about family diversity, discussing how to have children in the case of people in sexual minorities. This might lead people to have mistaken notions. For example, Minoru Kosaka, General Manager of Japan Policy Institute Japan has argued that parenting by people in sexual minorities mustn’t be allowed for the sake of children, citing as evidence some research which mentioned LGBT parents badly affected their children. (*3-10) But, actually, all of this research had already been rejected and found to be mistaken years ago. For example, research by Mark Regnerus, at The University of Texas at Austin, which concluded children raised by gay parents tend to have economic, social, mental problem, but Professor Simon Cheng, at the University of Connecticut, showed it to be wrong 2 years ago.(*3-11) Nevertheless, 70％ of people who read the article by Kosaka expressed opposition to fostering by same-sex couples in a questionnaire. (*3-12) From this situation, I understood that people easily believe what those in authority say and trust unfamiliar data because they have little background in research. It is therefore useful to do our own research and surveys about the Japanese situation to solve this problem.
4. Social Care and People in Sexual Minorities
In 2014 in Osaka, a transgender woman (married with a man) was allowed to be parent by adoption for the first time in Japan (*4-1). Similarly, in 2017 in Osaka, the first same-sex couple were confirmed as foster parents in this country.(*4-2) After that, same-sex couples were allowed to utilize foster care in many other local government, such as Tokyo in October 2018.(*4-3) These new, nascent movements may be encouraging for people in sexual minorities desiring to have children. However, in fact, this is not unusual overseas in countries such as European countries and U.S. That is because it serves a dual purpose…as many children as possible can grow up in a family and in addition it means that the dreams of sexual minority people to have children come true!
(1) Organisations
Megumi Fuji, the head of Rainbow Foster Care (RFC) an organisation supporting the involvement of sexual minorities in Social Care, is one of those that have this idea. According to her article posted on SYNODOS, she founded this organization because she thought that people in sexual minorities can drive the development of home care in social care at the social level.(*4-4)
Another organisation, Florence, which promotes baby adoption supports the encouragement of people in sexual minorities to join in the social care system, although it’s established concept is different from RFC. (*4-5) In an article praising the Osaka same-sex fostering decision, they clearly claimed that they hope for a society in which everyone, regardless of whether they are straight or members of sexual minorities, can have children as foster parents.
This is a big deal for people in sexual minorities because Associate Professor Yoko Nobe from University of Kochi mentioned in her paper that it was a problem for same-sex couples to find children to be adopted by themselves, because there was no organisation to help them. (*4-6)
Some organisations have been launched to make a sexual minority and social care children friendly society.
(2) Opinions
After a same-sex couple was confirmed as foster parents for the first time in Osaka, some authorities presented their opinions. The article written by Minoru Kosaka (mentioned above) is one of them. In another example, Hirofumi Yoshimura, the Mayor of Osaka, the city which finally confirmed the same-sex couple's fostering, reflects, “Are people in sexual minorities unable to raise children? I don’t think so. Fostering is the system for children. I also check the child’s resolve. They (the foster parents) understand the concept of the foster parent system, have economic stability and rear the child with love.” (*4-7) Furthermore, it’s reassuring that the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare, Yashisa Shiozaki indicates appreciation. “The most important thing is that children grow up properly in stable home regardless of whether their parents are a heterosexual or homosexual couple. If that is attained, we are grateful.”, he said.(*4-7)
These opinions from authorities are useful for population to discuss issues about family diversity, as you see from the questionnaire problem above.
IN contrast, in a booklet さとおやオピニオン (“Opinions of fostering parents”) published by RFC, many public opinions and experiences of sexual minority toujisha, foster parents and other people are reproted. (*4-8) A man who was a foster parent once said, “A society which lacks care for minority groups mustn’t be allowed. I want to help people in sexual minorities and keep children from being denied by society as a minority.” An FtM (sexual orientation is male though legal gender is female) transgender person mentioned, “I think it is pity that I cannot live with children for not only biological reasons but also social reasons. I want a chance to have children without surgery (for gender reassignment).” An woman who had same-sex partner before told she had been rejected as a foster parent just because they were a same-sex couple.
I think there is an inadequate system and laws relating to sexual minorities and social care in Japan because we haven’t had enough discussion about it. In other words, the opinions above are important to carry out more in-depth discussions on Social Care and people in sexual minorities, regardless of the views of people authority or other people about the pros or cons.
5. Ideas for children without birth parental care or people in sexual minority making family more easily
(1) Don’t regard only blood connection as family
As we've seen, typical concept of family is one of the causes of the lack of systems and support as well as of prejudice. I know it is too traditional to change immediately, but we should change some points of it easily. Blood-relation worship is one of them. Right from the start, we call it family though marriage is non-blood relationship. Moreover, there are lots of families which have problems even though they are based on blood relations. I think a blood relationship proves our roots but it doesn’t create a bond by itself. Far from it, strength of bonding of people making a family without blood connection should be valued? So it is natural that we recognise family diversity.
(2) Help the population get a sense of raising children in the whole society
When thinking about children in social care, people tend to stand apart from them, regarding them as an individual responsibility these days. Although a sense of neoliberal individualism like this is flourishing, we should tackle this problem soon. If people think they are substitute parents of children under social care, they cannot oppose the construction of institutions or overlook the prejudice children suffer. In addition, rising public concern for social care leads to enlarging options of family care for children.
(3) Prevent prejudice and discrimination to people involved in sexual minority parenting
As I mentioned above, studies or discussion about people involved sexual minority parenting are not yet sufficient in Japan. Actually, 70% of people who read the article written by Kosaka (see Section 3 above), expressed opposition to fostering by same-sex couples in a questionnaire. In other words, people easily believe what people in authority say because we have not discussed these issues well. Therefore, we should conduct more research in Japanese own way and also consider reliable research from overseas to remove discrimination that is based on no evidence or wrong knowledge. In addition, it must be driven by an authority like the government or the Diet.
(4) Make same-sex marriage legal
Marriage is one of the first steps to make a family. Legalising same-sex marriage guarantees not only legal protection for couples including tax exemption for dependents or access to the pension system but it also make it possible have children. That’s because a marital relationship enables same-sex couples to use ART or adoption. Needless to say, making same sex marriage legal means enlarging the range of choice of children under social care. In other words, new types of diverse families will be born in Japan.
(5) Eliminate sterilization condition for transgender reassignment
First of all, more transgender people will be able to live legally as the gender they want to be thanks to removing the biggest bottleneck of gender reassignment. As for making families, they can have babies inheriting genes of their own. In the first place, “Taking away the capacity for reproduction is evidently abuse of human rights.”, said Hiroyuki Taniguchi, an associate professor of Kanazawa University. (*5-1) In some countries, the has been changed recently because of this recognition. According to professor Emi Yano, University of the Ryukyu, sterilization was removed from gender-reassignment conditions in Sweden in 2013. Besides, atonement will be given because the government admit their mistake. (*5-2) The Japanese government should stop civil-rights violation like this as rapidly as possible.
6. Conclusion
Had you ever thought about family-making for people who are not allowed to use systems people in majority naturally are guaranteed access to in Japan? I’m glad that you now wonder if it should be or not. …Yes, thinking 'not' is also okay I think, because the most important thing is to keep paying attention to and discussing issues which are destroying diversity and equality. If you didn’t consider these issues, your answers to them would be always just “I don’t know”. This is sometimes interpreted by politicians as “You don’t care” = “The systems which a handful of people suffer don’t have to be changed without enough discussion”. If you think this is okay, now you are one of the perpetrators. Congratulations.
Everyone has the right of making their own family equally. However, it is clear there are people who can’t have families currently. I hope this problem will be solved not just to catch up with the international standard but also to admit this as radical human-rights. In fact, perhaps, it will happen soon. Shintaro Mizushima, a teacher at Doshisha University gave a questionnaire to 427 university students about fostering by same-sex couples. Approximately 80% of the students indicated their agreement and rest of them offered opposition.（*6-1) In other words, most of us, in the generation that will lead our society in the future mean to change this unequal situation. It is our duty to respect diversity and realize equality in Japan.
7. References
2-1. 社会的養護 (厚生労働省HPより) / Social Care (on Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare website)
2-2.社会的養護の施設等について (厚生労働省HPより）/ Instituions of Social Care(On Ministry of Health, labour and Welfare website)
2-3.「家族」の多様性と境界:乳児院とLGBTの里親支援の現場から 三宅 博子《Journal東京迂回路研究 : 多様性と境界に関する対話と表現の研究所×東京アートポイント計画 1, 32-41, 2015-03》
2-4.社会的養護の現状について (厚生労働省資料)/ Exisiting Social Care(Ministry of Health, labour and Welfare document)
2-6. 朝日新聞Dialog「日本の社会に必要なのは子育てを共有する意識 里親や養子縁組をテーマに研究 日本女子大学 林浩康教授」
2-8. 社会的養護の現状 (日本子ども支援協会)
2-9.福祉新聞「社会的養育の都道府県計画、見直し方針は妥当」草間吉夫教授インタビュー Feburaty 6, 2018
2-10.『子どもが語る施設の暮らし』編集委員会[編] 『子どもが語る施設の暮らし』明石書店、1999
2-11.差別や偏見、逆境に立ち向かう～児童養護施設から社会に巣立つ子どもたちの自立支援を考える June 5, 20152-12.
2-12.朝日新聞 「児童養護施設の移転、地元反対で断念 「学校が荒れる」 Feburary 12 ,2018
2-13.NEWSポストセブン「国分寺の児童養護施設建設反対ビラの偏見に満ちた酷い内容 August 9, 2016
2-14.「普通の家族」ってなんだろう？児童養護施設経験者の私が考える、血縁を超えた家族のかたち。 佐々木 ののか UMU November 29, 2017
2-15.ねほりんぱほりん 児童養護施設で育った人だけが味わう喜びと悲しみ NHK November 14, 2018
3-1.誰がARTを利用できるか:性的マイノリティにおける家族の形の多様化の可能性 遠矢 和希/ Who is permitted to utilize ART? : the possibility of diversity in the shape of families by sexual minority Waki Toya 《生命倫理 19(1), 71-78, 2009》
3-2.“子を持ち 育てたい” 同性カップルが直面する課題 NHK おはよう日本 February 7, 2018
3-3.誰がARTを利用できるか:性的マイノリティにおける家族の形の多様化の可能性 遠矢 和希/ Who is permitted to utilize ART? : the possibility of diversity in the shape of families by sexual minority Waki Toya 《生命倫理 19(1), 71-78, 2009》
3-4.「家族」の多様性と境界:乳児院とLGBTの里親支援の現場から 三宅 博子《Journal東京迂回路研究 : 多様性と境界に関する対話と表現の研究所×東京アートポイント計画 1, 32-41, 2015-03》
3-5.「いまならはっきり言える。私たち、子どもがほしい」ー。性同一性障害の夫とその妻が、子どもを持つことを考えるとき。 矢嶋 桃子 December 28, 2017
3-6.What To Expect When You're A Trans Dad Expecting by Sarah Larlan, BuzzFeed News January 31, 2017
3-7.She Wanted You to See a Family, Not Just a Pregnant Man by Jackie Molly, The New York Times June 22, 2018
3-8.誰がARTを利用できるか:性的マイノリティにおける家族の形の多様化の可能性 遠矢 和希/ Who is permitted to utilize ART? : the possibility of diversity in the shape of families by sexual minority Waki Toya 《生命倫理 19(1), 71-78, 2009》
3-9.Children raised by same-sex couples healthier and happier, research suggests July 5, 2014
3-10.子どもの幸せを奪う同性カップルの里親などもってのほか！ iRONNA
3-11. A “reality check” for the Regnerus study on gay parenting Washington Post May10 2015
4ｰ1.特別養子縁組、性別変更の「母」に認める 日本経済新聞 April 2 2014
4-2.同性カップルが里親に 大阪市が異例の認定 日本経済新聞 April 5, 2017
4-3.同性カップル：養育里親、東京都も認める方針 規準改定 毎日新聞 May 18,2018
4-4.LGBTと「社会的養護」 家庭を必要としている子どもたちのために 藤めぐみ December 13,2013
4-5.日本初、男性カップルの里親が誕生しました！ Florence 赤ちゃん縁組 April ８,2017
4-6.同性パートナーシップと養子縁組 野辺 陽子（特集 LGBT：日本と世界のリアル）《現代思想 43(16), 119-125, 2015-10》
4-7.虹色百話～性的マイノリティーへの招待 第79話 子どもを育てる同性カップルたち 永易 至文 ヨミドクター（読売新聞）
5-1.報告２"国際人権法からみた性の多様性と家族" 谷口 洋幸 （性の多様性，家族・親子の多様性ー多様なカップルが子をもつということ）《司法福祉学研究 = Japanese journal of forensic social services (18), 162-165, 2018》
5-2.報告１"家族法制からみた性の多様性と家族" 立石 直子 （性の多様性，家族・親子の多様性ー多様なカップルが子をもつということ）《司法福祉学研究 = Japanese journal of forensic social services (18), 162-165, 2018》
the views of