The Ionian Islands, the largest of which is Corfu, lie off the W coast of Greece. At the end of the 18th Century these islands and Dalmatia were one of the few remaining parts of the once extensive Venetian Empire. In 1796-7 Napoleon conducted a successful campaign against the Piedmontese and Austrians in northern Italy, which was followed a year later by another one against the Venetian Republic. As a result of the subsequent peace treaties the Venetians lost the Dalmatian coast to the Austrians and France took over the Ionian Islands.
However in 1798, with the formation of the Second Coalition between Britain, Austria and Russia, the Austrian and Russian armies had recovered most of France's conquests in northern Italy. One outcome of this Austro-Russian success was that France handed over the Ionian Islands to Russia, who in 1800 established the protectorate of the Septinsular Republic. While researching this obscure piece of early XIXth Century history it has been difficult to find out exactly why Russia felt it was necessary to establish its influence over a group of islands at the entrance to the Adriatic. Presumably having recently gained control of the N coast of the Black Sea. (Odessa was founded in 1794) we see the beginning of Russia's ambitions to become a Mediterranean power. A further possible reason was that the new Tsar, Paul, had proclaimed himself Grand Master of the Order of St John, an order which was based in nearby Malta.
The Third Coalition was formed in 1803 between England, Austria, Prussia, Sweden and Russia, and in 1805 Alexander I (Tsar Paul had been assassinated) decided to strengthen his forces in the Mediterranean. To achieve this policy a naval squadron, under the command of Vice-Admiral Dmitri Nikolaevitch Seniavin, was dispatched from Kronstadt, in the Gulf of Finland, to Corfu.
On its way to the Mediterranean the Russian squadron called at Portsmouth where James was recruited for service as a surgeon in the Russian Navy. On the squadron's arrival at Corfu, James joined the Selafail, the flagship of Vice-Admiral Seniavin. The following extracts from his diaries describe some of the events that occurred in the next two years.
James Hall gives the background to the employment of English surgeons by the Russian Navy and the reasons for this Russian deployment.
SERVICE IN THE RUSSIAN NAVY
The squadron was fitted out at Kronstadt for the Mediterranean and on its way to that place was to touch at Portsmouth, complete any stores of which the ships might be deficient and make such other improvements as might be suggested by the English Government. The squadron anchored at Portsmouth at the latter end of September; during their stay at this place the ships completed themselves with English provisions and other stores for six months. They sent all their guns on shore and had locks fitted to them; I latterly observed them dislike the improvements of the locks, and prefer the old mode with matches.
An order was given to Mr Grieg, Russian Commissioner in London, by his court desiring him to make application to the British Court for permission to take English surgeons on board Russian ships. Permission was obtained and an advertisement immediately appeared in the daily papers stating the want of English surgeons and assistants; the pay to the former was 1600 Roubles a year and after ten years' service, 2000 roubles. The pay of assistants was to be 800 roubles, they were to be always retained on full pay whilst in the service, and were not required to provide themselves with instruments. Various were the advantages said to be found in this service; the Mediterranean being the place appointed for the scene of action and the pleasure of curiosity to a young mind, induced me with several young men to enrol myself under the banner of S. Michael. The ships were all well provided with Russian surgeons; nevertheless it was found requisite to have us and for reasons which will presently appear, they were subordinate to us, and consequently felt themselves severely wounded in their feelings. This caused them to regard us with a jealous countenance, and to throw many obstacles to our comfort. Many were the insults which some of us suffered at the commencement, but time, that sovereign remedy for all evils, and the visible superiority of our knowledge of the science of medicine over theirs, reconciled us to each other.
One of the objects which the Russian Court had in view by sending the squadron was the security of Naples, then occupied by the combined Russian and English forces. The other and most probably the real object was to meet the Turks, against whom they were then preparing their thunder, although at peace; this was their reason for engaging us in their service.
PORTSMOUTH TO SARDINIA
November 28th
Spithead at 6 am. Unmoored ship per signal; at 7 the pilot came on board; at 9 got under weigh and stood down channel with a moderate breeze in company with HIM ships Orel, of 80 guns, Yaraslov, Moskva, St Peter, of 74 guns, Kilduin, 32 guns and Phoenix and Argus, gun brigs, for the Mediterranean under command of Vice-Admiral Seniavin.
November 29th
Fresh breezes at WSW and cloudy weather with squalls and rain throughout these 24 hours; lost sight of all the ships except Orel; distance in miles per log 30; (saw some of the Trafalgar ships.)
This was some of the English fleet returning after the Battle of Trafalgar, which had been fought some five weeks earlier. Seniavin saluted the dead Nelson's flag.
January 9th
Arrived at Cagliari, Sardinia, fell in with the English fleet during the passage. Put under arrest for supporting my friend Cox. After three courts of enquiry I am released and acquitted.
CORFU
February 3rd
Anchored Corfu.
April 8th
Several men-of-war are here from the Black Sea; they have naval stores for the fleet. A man died this morning of typhus. The hospital is most infamously conducted; it is situated in the midships of the lower deck between the fore and main hatchways, with the capstan in the middle, and a large medicine chest at one end; they have also cots for the sick; the place is very small, it can only contain eight cots, and in case of more than that number being necessary, they place other cots under these. The whole of the Hospital is well enclosed with thick red cloth. In this place are received the unfortunate men who chance to fall ill; if their complaints are the least dangerous they certainly must die; fresh air at night – so necessary – excluded from them, as if contagious. The lower ports are firmly secured, and the sick are surrounded by the foul air of 400-500 men; add to this their natural filthiness, and the lower deck is generally in a most abominable state; the wet cables are generally suffered to be upon the deck from one port to another, thus adding to its nastiness. I am very happy that the weather has changed, and we are arrived in port, for if we had continued with bad weather at sea, I have every reason to suppose that we should have had a number of deaths.
April 10th
A general assembly of the Senators was held this day at Corfu; they say that the Russians have demanded of the Republic to hoist the Imperial flag; if they refuse, the Russian forces will leave them to the chance of being attacked by the French. After the defeat of the Austrians at Austerlitz the previous December, control of Dalmatia passed to the French. In Dubrovnik, General Lauriston, one of Napoleon's generals raised a Croatian militia to fight the Montenegrins and Russians. Curzola (now known as Korcula) is an island off the Dalmation coast about 230 miles NW of Corfu. Its main claim to fame is that it is the birthplace of Marco Polo.
CURZOLA
May 10th
We expect to land the marines at midnight and take the place; the ships taken were deserted by their crews, who went on shore as soon as they found it impossible to defend them, and joined their troops in the City, it not being more than 3 miles from them.
At midnight the St Peter got under weigh and anchored within a cable's length of the fort; at 4 am sent 5 boats well armed with 160 marines, to make a landing; they were joined, near the shore, by the same number from St Peter. On landing the troops, we found the place deserted by the French; they had procured several small boats during the night and between 1 and 2 of the clock this morning they retreated to the Dalmatian (opposite) shore, bending their course towards Ragusa. Boats were dispatched after them and came up with one containing 15 soldiers; other boats were seen two or three miles ahead. At noon are soldiers returned from the place, the Admiral not being able to leave a sufficient number to defend themselves, if the French return as we expect they will; besides we have barely enough to attack Lezzina, where we expect to meet with some resistance. We find the French were 320 in number; they received intelligence of the small number of Russians left to protect it. On entering the town, the Russians endeavoured to escape in a boat, upon which, the French fired upon them and made them prisoners.
Most of those wounded are in great danger; one died this morning and some more will soon follow. To add to the general misfortune there are a great number ill of fever and typhus, and the fever is spreading among those wounded. They are all kept in the cockpit, lying upon the deck, with scarce any bedding and very little change of air, the place being very small, and the sick so numerous as to touch each other.
I was awoke during the middle of the night by the rare cries of a mouse which I suppose was bringing forth. The cries were equal, sharp and long, continuous and very pathetic, occasionally some very sharp cries in a louder tone were sent forth, immediately after which a repose of a few minutes succeeded.
May 12th
Saw a person to-day twenty days from France. He says Marseilles is deserted, neither commerce nor shipping. At Toulon there is a new ship of 120 guns and 3 or 4 frigates ready for sea. Sicily is still defended by English troops. The French are in Calabria in great numbers and meditate a descent upon Messina.
May 31st
We are informed that an attack was meditated upon us by 300 troops and fifteen gunboats. They were to have been here last night but the wind changed. We are in the perfect readiness. We have put a large gun in each of the boats and another gun with an anchor to let go as soon as they come, that we may swing broadside to them.
June 18th
Bocca di Cattaro. We dispatched a sloop of war to cut out a vessel, the night before last, but she was obliged to retreat, as the vessel fired upon her! Powder and balls suit my companions best at a distance! Came in an Austrian Brig-of-war from Trieste, with a courier from the Court of St Petersburg for the Admiral. He was informed at Trieste that the French Commander at Ragusa had sent a Flag of truce to the Archbishop, who commands the army of the Montenegrins, to know by what right they cut off the heads of all the French prisoners. It is said that they answered that they only followed the example of the French in destroying their King.
July 7th
I am afraid our friends (the Russians) will end this campaign with very little credit.
DALMATION COAST
Aug 12th
We are informed that peace is made between the French and the Russians. General Lauriston, C-in-C in Dalmatia and aide-de-camp to Bonaparte, has received orders to organise the country.
Tuesday - Aug 13th
Arrived a brig from Corfu with an account of the Peace. General Lauriston and suite dined with the Admiral; the inhabitants of this country express great dissatisfaction at the thought of being forsaken by the Russians, and delivered into the hands of the French.
General Lauriston was standing on our quarter deck in company with General Bellegarde and the Admiral, when an Englishman in the Russian service, looking on with not one of the most pleasant countenances, was accosted by a stranger in French with a "Qui est cet officier en Bleu?" "C'est le general des Francais." "Et celui la en Blanc?" "Ah! Monsieur, c'est le general des Autre-chiens."
In fact the news of peace had been premature and hostilities continued until the next summer, when in July Napoleon met the Tzar at Tilsit (7-9 July) and a treaty was concluded which resulted in the Russians changing sides and taking arms against their former allies the English.
In his diaries James describes the part he played in preventing an English warship, the Weazle, sailing into the anchorage of Corfu, unaware of the fact that the Russians had, in theory, recently turned the island over to the French under the terms of the new Treaty.
We are fortunate enough to have a description of this incident which was written fifteen years later by Capt John Clavell, the Commanding Officer of the Weazle.
CORFU
July
Wrote to the Admiral requesting my discharge.
July 27th
Arrived a Russian and French Courier from Naples, with intelligence of peace concluded between France, Russia and Prussia and an armistice with Turkey. The French and Italian ports are now opened to Russian vessels.
July 30th
I have the pleasure to receive permission to retire from the service of his Imperial Majesty.
Obtained passport.
August 22nd
An English brig hove in sight.
August 24th
HBMS (His Britannic Majesty's Ship) Weazle fell in with a convoy (French) near Cassiope and captured a brig, a colonel, two Captains, ten ladies, 250 soldiers and the military chest, containing 300,000 dollars. All the baggage lost overboard during the confusion. The Colonel's wife was pregnant and became so alarmed at being made prisoner that labours came on and she died.
August 26th
Employed on expedition. Mr Kirke, the English Consul, was privately informed that General Cardenau would not take charge of the fortress till more troops came. He apprehended an attack from the English. He requested the Russian Governor General Nazimoff to remain in possession of Corfu a short time. To this General N. objected. The orders he received from the Court of Petersburg peremptorily ordered him to surrender the Island without hesitation, delay, or equivocation, to the French. The Russians were breathing hatred and revenge, on account of their defeat at Tilsit, the news of which arrived only two days before that of the peace, and was followed in three days by the entry of the French troops. Time was not therefore allowed to compose their minds and prepare them easily to digest the present sudden and unexpected change of affairs. There were continually quarrels and fighting between them and the Russians. The English in the Island (only 5 or 6) thought that if the above intelligence was communicated to the English cruisers they would immediately take advantage of so favourable a moment. We knew there were some English men-of-war about the Adriatic; I volunteered to go, and was hastened in my departure by the appearance in the offing of an English frigate. I hired a Greek boat with four men, and disguised as a Russian officer, set out in the evening. At midnight, I arrived at the ancient Cassiope and learnt that an English frigate had passed there a few hours before my arrival; also that she had been firing at some French boats. It was then too dark for me to proceed in search of her; I slept till break of day in the boat, hoping to see her. She was seen to anchor late in the evening in a bay, a few miles distance from where I was. As soon in the morning as the horizon was visible, we again went in search of her. Landing on the most western point of the Island. I had the mortification to see her with two transports under a press of sail, and at too great a distance for me to overtake her . I stood off to the mouth of the Adriatic in hope of encountering some English man-of-war. At noon a long way from the land, I fell in with an Austrian merchant ship bound to Corfu; I entered on board, letting my boat be towed. I devised a tale for being so far in the offing in a small boat. Towards sunset we approached the harbour, when I quitted the ship, and began to feel alarm from observing so many French officers on the citadel. I afterwards was informed that they were looking for the approach of expected reinforcements; but my fears were excited, especially as during the preceding night, having seen a large boat at anchor in a cove, I ran into a cove about a quarter of a mile from it, then landed, and crawled along the earth till I came opposite the strange boat; the moon shone in full brightness and I was obliged to crouch among some brush-wood. All was silent; I hailed a boat by a cant word used by the officers of the British men-of-war that frequented Corfu. Having hailed thrice, I was answered in a foreign voice apparently French. I considered it to be a boat with French soldiers. I returned hastily to my boat. I learnt that the frigate seen in the offing was the Ambuscade, 32, Captain W Durban. If I had spoken her, the Island of Corfu would have fallen into the hands of my country.
On Saturday afternoon, August 22nd, a man-of-war brig was seen in the offing. Everybody was expecting the arrival of troops from Otranto. General Cardenau's forces occupied the works about town and garrisoned the Island Vido, whose batteries defend the harbour. Towards night I discovered that the brig was my old acquaintance the Weazle, Captain J Clavell. I hired a boat and left the harbour; about ten at night I got on board; it had been calm, now there was a breeze and in about half an hour the brig would have come to an anchor: she was going to the southward to Malta. They did not know the Island was in the possession of the French, and that France and Russia had made peace. Soon was the brig's head put to the northward, Captain C. went into town, ascended a flight of steps and was just going to knock at (as he thought) the Minister's door when he was suddenly touched by a female, who beckoned him to follow her; she took him into her house and informed him that the Minister had fled, the French possessed the Island and a colonel occupied Mr Foresti's late residence! He hastily took off his epaulet, and passing the gates unnoticed by the sentinels, got into his boat, and fortunately effected his escape. I gave him the letter which Mr Kirke wrote some days before. To its contents I added all the intelligence I had collected, the most important of which was the following, that a body of troops were hourly expected from Otranto together with General Berthier. I advised Captain C to clear the brig instantly for action, and to stand to the northward, where he would certainly fall in with the enemy during the night. I had the pleasure of seeing everything was arranged, my advice taken and I left the crew in high spirits; from my knowledge of Captain C and his officers, I was assured the Weazle would do her duty. As I informed the Captain that I had written for my discharge from the Russian service, he advised me to remain on board the Weazle; but I declined as I wished to retire honourably. Had I not thus acted, I should not have had the flattering testimonials which Admiral Seniavin afterwards conferred on me. At the dawn of day, the Weazle found herself in the midst of a convoy; she opened her broadsides to the consternation of the slumbering enemy. Confusion became general, as when a wolf springs into the midst of a fold. There were three men-of-war, but they fled. Many vessels ran ashore, the troops from many others took to their boats and hastened to the shore; four sail were captured. Among the fugitives was the great General Berthier, who was to have made a grand entrance amidst salutes, and a Levee was to be held. All the authorities were in waiting, as many of the Convoy were seen in the offing. I was sensible that some disaster had happened, because the vessels were straggling, some crippled, some were ashore on the opposite coast. In the afternoon General Berthier and staff entered the two incog; the vessels began to arrive ahead the miraculous escapes from the man-of-war's shots, related by the French soldiers on their being disembarked, amused me very much. I was told the particulars of the disaster that had befallen the French, the best part of the Grenadier Company had been captured, the Colonel was a prisoner, the General and staff had been forced to traverse the country partly on foot, and had entered on his new Government full of chagrin. He refused to hold an audience and sent a message to the Russian Commodore Liley, to ask why his ships did not protect the channels of Corfu from the insults of British Cruisers. Spies were planted about the houses of the few Englishmen that were on the Island, the Vice-consul was made prisoner and Messrs. Holbrooke and Lind, surgeons in the Russian navy, were confined for a few hours; a corporal's guard was sent to take my friend Mr Kirke. He effected his escape on board the Asia, 64, commanded by Capt Bailey. Strict enquiry was made to discover who the person was that went on board the English Brig, and a reward was offered. At this period my discharge arrived from Admiral Seniavin, and General Berthier hoping to obtain the exchange of the Consul for the colonel, allowed Mr Kirke passports on condition that he would promise to solicit the exchange of the Colonel. I embarked with Mr Kirke in an Austrian vessel, destined to Malta.
Till the period of my departure and till I had lost sight of the Island my fears were not small. I dreaded that the Greek boatmen might betray me. Why they did not, I cannot tell, as I had not bound them to my interest by any reward. I paid them handsomely. I believe the French suspected Captain Bailey to be the person who had caused them so much damage.
ACCOUNT OF CAPTAIN CLAVELL AND EXTRACT FROM THE LOG OF HMS WEAZLE
In his version of events Captain Clavell gives a slightly different account of what happened. However there is no doubt Captain Clavell was very impressed and grateful for the actions taken by James Hall.
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