Backgammon

The Doubling Cube is an oversized hexagonal die with the numbers 2,4,8,16,32, and 64 on the 6 faces. This die is used to keep track of the number of points or units at stake in the game. At the beginning of the game, the doubling cube is placed halfway between the players, either on the bar or at the side of the board, with the number 64 face up. The 64 means that the stakes have not been doubled yet. (Most doubling cubes do not have a 1, so the number 64 is understood to represent 1). The position of the cube, halfway between the players, indicates that both players have access to it. That is, either player can make the first double. Backgammon matches are typically (but not necessarily, in my opinion) played for points. Each game starts being worth exactly one point. At any point during the course of the game, either player may move to double the stakes of the game. This is required to be done on that player's turn before they roll the dice. When a player moves to double, the other player must either agree and play on for double the points of the game, or resign and lose the current value of the game. If the double is agreed upon, the doubling cube is passed to the player that accepted and thereafter the right to double alternates and is synonymous with the owner of the cube. A single game may double several times and the face showing at the top of the cube reflects the current value of the game. Any time a player refuses a double, they resign the game and pay the current value. At the end of the game, the double for gammon and triple for backgammon apply in addition to any voluntary doubles that have been made. More specifically, the winner wins the amount shown on the cube times two if they have won a gammon or times three if they have won a backgammon.

Optional Rules

The Murphy Rule for automatic doubles states that if identical numbers are thrown by each player for the opening roll, the game is automatically doubled. The doubling cube would then be turned to two, but neither player takes possession of it. At this point it is still undecided which player will roll first and each player must roll a single die again. If they roll the same number again the stakes double again and the cube is turned to four and so on.

Beavers allow a player who has been propositioned with a double to not only accept, redouble and retain possession of the cube. Such an action is called to "beaver". Interestingly, beaver is here a verb.

Raccoons are another step of doubling beyond beavering. Here, the original player doubled their opponent, the opponent beavered the cube (doubling again), but the original player raccooned the opponent by doubling yet again. The opponent retains the doubling cube.

The Jacoby Rule, named after Oswald Jacoby, states that gammons and backgammons only count for their respective double and triple values if the cube has already been offered and accepted. Otherwise, they count as a single game. The Crawford Rule, named after John R. Crawford, states: When a player is one point away from winning a match, neither player may use the doubling cube for the following game, called the Crawford game. After the Crawford game, the use of the doubling cube may resume.

Strategy

It is common for a new player to see Backgammon as little more than a glorified race game and to greatly underestimate its complexity and the skill required to play it. Like most board games, the greatest part of the strategy can only be developed from much experience of the game and its subtleties. There are, however, a few helpful tips that are often offered for beginners. The most obvious tip is to try and avoid leaving blots, but on the other hand of this advice it is also not practical to gather large numbers of checkers onto the same pip, as these could be working to close pips elsewhere.

The most powerful configuration a player can make is backgammon is prime. A prime is a set of six consecutive pips that have 2 or more checkers of the same color on them. These checkers are said to be closed. An opposing checker that is behind the prime will be unable to pass until that prime becomes broken. Even a set of two, three, four or five consecutive closed pips can be powerful and limit movement by the opponent. Of course, it will very likely be impossible not to have a few blots left open during any game but even here there can be strategy. If faced with a choice of leaving two or more checkers as blots, choose ones that are either far away or very close to opposing checkers to reduce the chance of getting hit. A blot that is six pips away from an opposing checker is most vulnerable and its vulnerability will decrease the closer or further away from that "six point" it lies. For instance, a blot that is directly beside, one pip away, from and opposing checker is not very vulnerable to that checker as the opposing player only stands a 33% chance of rolling a 1 on any roll.

Variations

Backgammon variants are properly called Tables variants. Backgammon should be retained for the specific game described above that may also be referred to as Standard Backgammon, or Western Backgammon.

Historical Variations

Grammai and Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum (Twelve Line Game) are likely to be early Tables variants from ancient Greece and Rome. Eminent games historian HJR Murray, after years of careful study into board game history, states 'that the board games of Greece and Rome are affiliated to the older games of Egypt, Ur, and Palestine'. It is easy to see that the methods of play of modern backgammon could be derived from the earlier games already mentioned (Jiroft Games, Royal Game of Ur, Tau, Senet), but direct evidence for the evolution of Tau or Senet into Backgammon by the logical route of Ancient Greece is scant at best. There is some mention in ancient Greek literature of a game known as Grammai and later the same game is known as Diagrammismos. These names refer to the game as being drawn with lines. As there are no known detailed existing descriptions of these games, it is probable, although only hypothetical, that they are predecessors to the ancient Roman game known as Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum or simply Duodecim Scripta. Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum translates to “Twelve Line Game”. Again, no written description of it is known but it is likely the same as or similar to the earlier game of Grammai or Diagrammismos. Further, Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum and these other games are conjecturally, yet logically, evolved from the Egyptian game of Senet.

Duodecim Scripta appears to be depicted on the back of a silver mirror dating near 200 BCE found at Palestrina (aka Praeneste), near Rome. The picture depicts a man and woman seated near a twelve-lined board and the man’s hand is positioned as if he were about to throw dice. The man seems to be made to be saying "OFEINOD", while the woman says "DEVINCAMTED". The meaning of this transaction is mostly unknown, but one translation says that the man is asking the woman "oh, aren't you playing on?" to which she answers "I believe I've already won".

Many Duodecim Scripta boards and playing pieces have been found throughout the Roman Empire. The basic form is always the same, 3x12 playing cells, typically separated down the middle by a blank or decorated column, which may be the equivalent of backgammon's bar. Three dice (tesserae) were used to play and each player had fifteen counters. The exact method of play is unknown.

The cells of the boards were highly variable, being represented by circles, squares, vertical bars, leaves, crosses, crescents, monograms, erotic symbols, or letters. The letters were often six groups of six-letter words making simple statements in a hexameter verse. These versions of the game are typically referred to as "The Lines of the Twelve Philosophers". It is probable that such contrivances served to disguise boards that were used for illegal gambling.

Many different variations of words and letters were used for Duodecim Scripta boards. Above are shown some of those that have been discovered.

Alea and/or Tabula are game(s) known from the Roman Empire. Somewhere around the time of Christ, popularity of Duodecim Scripta began to wane in the Roman Empire, probably due to the acceptance of a new similar dice/race game which reduced the 3x12 board to a 2x12 board. Medieval literature oft refers to this game as Alea, which is also a term to refer to cubical dice or astragals and was likely a term for dice games and gambling in general. Eventually, the name Tabula took hold for the game and is still sometimes heard in the referring of backgammon like games as Tables, or in the Modern Greek version of the game Tavli. It was popular in the first century AD, and was much favored by the Emperor Claudius, who reportedly wrote a book, long lost, on the subject.

The board for the Tabula is topologically equivalent with the modern backgammon, although it is not known for sure at what point the triangular pips began to replace a simple lined 2x12 grid. The rules of Tabula were very similar to modern Backgammon, with only a few notable differences:

• Three dice instead of two are used for each roll in Tabula. One die is rolled by both players to determine who goes first and then three dice are rolled by both players for every subsequent turn.

• The checkers all begin off of the board and are entered onto it as if they were being reentered in modern backgammon. After a player has entered one or more checkers, subsequent rolls may be used to move the checkers forward, but checkers may not be entered into the second half of the board until all of other checkers of that color have been entered.

• Both players follow the same route around the board. For one player, this would be from the top right to top left to bottom left and then the home area for both players is on his bottom right (top left for the player on the other side of the board). This means that both players move counterclockwise, follow the route given to white in the backgammon diagram given above, and bear off from the same home area.

All other rules for Backgammon apply to Tabula. Blots are hit and moved to the bar and the same rules for reentry apply. A player must have reentered all checkers before they can resume moving checkers around the board. All of a player's checkers must be in the home area before they can begin bearing off.

Nard (aka Nardshir or T'shu-p'u in China) is simply the version of Tables that originates in the ancient Middle East. This game may be influential to or derived from Tabula. Modern forms and derivations are very much the same as Backgammon, but this may just represent a modern borrowing from the European Game. The word Nard comes from a type of wood native to Persia and it is here that the game is first described. Its first known mention, as Nardshir, is in the Babylonian Talmud (200 - 500 CE), a central text of mainstream Judaism. It is later mentioned in the Chatrang-Namak (c. 650- 850 CE), the Persian story of how Chess was introduced into Persia from India which then led to the creation of Nard.

From Persia (modern Iran), the game underwent a grand dissemination throughout huge portions of the Old World: by the Arabs with their conquest of Persia (c. 650 CE); into many regions of China (where it is known as T'shu-p'u), Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Russia (one version of Russian Tables played today is known as Narde) and as far east as Korea (Ssang-ryouk) and Japan (Sugoroku). Nard also entered Europe via Moor invasion and conquest of Spain and the Iberian Peninsula (c. 700 - 1300 CE). The extent to which the Middle Eastern game influenced the already existing European game of Tabula (or vice versa) is very debatable. At the very most, the game of Tabula underwent a huge transformation incorporating most or all of the rules of Nard onto their nearly identical board for Tabula. At the least, Tabula probably switched from the use of three dice to the two used for Nard. I would guess that there were many variations of both games being played throughout Europe before and after the Moor influence as there are a certainly a lot of different fun and skillful games that can be played on the Tabula board and each village may have had its own unique variant.

Fayles, also spelled Fails, was a Tables game played in England and Spain from the 13th to the 17th century. Fayles used three dice instead of the two used today and a roll of doubles (or even triples) is not special in Fayles. At any time that a player cannot make all three numbers cast they lose the game. The opening position is different in that each player starts with two checkers on their opponent's number one pip and thirteen checkers on their own number six pip. All other rules are the same as modern Backgammon.

Irish is probably Backgammon's direct ancestor. It was popular in the British Isles in the 16th and 17th centuries and similar or identical games are known from other places in Europe such as the French Toutes Tables, Spanish Todas Tablas, and Italian Tavole Reale. It is much the same as Backgammon and is probably the earliest form to use two dice instead of three. It is easy to see that scoring is a much later development in Backgammon as there is no bonus for gammon, backgammon, doubling or doubling cube used in this game. Unlike Backgammon, the winner of the opening roll rerolls for their first turn and a roll of doubles in Irish is not special: each number is played just once.

Irish has a special rule pertaining to closed home areas. A player is prohibited from having every pip of their home area closed (with more than one friendly checker) if their opponent has a checker on the bar. If this situation were to occur to a player when it is their opponent's turn, both players must roll one die. The player rolling the larger number then decides which pip of the closed home area must be made open. All but one checker is then removed from the nominated point and placed on the bar as if they had been hit.

The rules for bearing off are less restricting than Backgammon's. You do not have to bear off exactly, a checker may bear off with a roll greater than or equal to the number of the pip on which it resides. A player may bear off from a lower numbered pip even if a higher numbered pip still has checkers on it.

Modern Variations

Poof is exactly the same as Backgammon except here the lower number of a roll must always be played first. If a player is unable to play the lower number of roll, then that turn is lost.

Hyper-backgammon is a quick playing version of regular Backgammon. All of the same rules apply, but each player only has three checkers that commence on each of the opponent's numbers one, two, and three pips.

LongGammon is exactly the same as Backgammon, except that all counters begin on their opponent's number one pip.

Nackgammon is the same as Backgammon in all but the opening position: From furthest to bearing off to closest: each player commences with two checkers on the opponent's one pip, two checkers on the opponent's two pip, four checkers on the opponent's twelve pip, three on eight pip and four on the six pip (in the home area)

Misere (Losing Backgammon or Deadgammon) follows exactly the same rules as regular Backgammon, only that the objective is to not bear off all of your checkers: to lose. These games can take a long time to play.

Each dice throw must be taken separately and cannot be combined for a total. Throwing doubles requires a player to roll again. Rolls of two and five are apparently also disregarded in the English version. A single roll of both 2 and 5 may cancel itself in the Swedish version, i.e one in, one out. Cotton does not describe rules as to which player is to receive a checker, if playing with three or more, after a player rolls 1. Presumably, it is the player to the casting player's left or right side. After a player is rid of all of their checkers, they must then, on that turn, roll again a free cast, (slå frislag, Swedish) and roll a 1 or 6 to finish. The first player to do so is the winner, If more than two are playing, the game may continue to determine rank. Of course, the last player to have checkers in their possession is the loser.

Tourne-case is a rather simple race game played on the Tables board. It was popular in France in the 17th century. Each player only has three checkers that begin in hand, are entered from the east side, race across the twelve pips on their respective side of the board (white across the north side and black across the south), and are stacked on the twelfth pip on their side of the board, called the coin de repos. The winner of the opening roll rerolls for their first turn. No two checkers may occupy the same pip and checkers may be moved to open pips only (except the coin de repos). Checkers must remain in theri order of entry and may not pass a checker in front. Doubles are not special and are played just once. If a player is unable to play all the numbers of roll, they play as many they can and the rest of the turn is lost. Checkers may be hit by the opponent when the opponent lands on an open pip directly across the board from it. Hit checkers are taken off of the board and must start over. The winner is the first to stack all three checkers on their coin de repos. Wins count for double is the losing player has not entered all of their checkers.

Trictrac is a French Tables variant that originates around 1500 and was popular until around 1850. Today, the word Trictrac is often used to denote Backgammon in French, but the true game of Trictrac is quite different. It has, by far, the most elaborate set of rules and objectives of any known Tables variant. It is known that there were two forms of Trictrac in the 17th century known as le Petit Trictrac and le Grand Trictrac.

All checkers begin on their opponent's number one pip and proceed around the board in contrary motion as in Plakato or Gioul. There is no actual hitting of blots in Trictrac, and racing to bear off plays a small role in this game. Instead, points are scored for achieving certain configurations and making certain plays. A player scoring twelve points was said to have made a trou, or hole, and twelve trous by a player won a match. Tables boards used for Trictrac often have line of twelve holes along the edge of the longer sides of the board, in which pegs were placed to keep score for each trou. There are many variations of Tables games from all over the world and all different ages and this list is by no means comprehensive.

Sources

1. Parlett, David. The Oxford History of Board Games. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1999.

2. Backgammon Variants. http://www.bkgm.com/variants/