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Days Before Yesterday
VICTORIAN SCHOOLDAYS
IN OYSTERMOUTH
By Carol Powell, M.A
For my Parents Harold and Elaine Symmons
with thanks . . .
. . . long sunlit summer days spent at Lilliput . . .
and for my Children -
Elizabeth and Cathy
as well as for my Grandchildren -
Charlotte, Tomas, Harriet, William, Mathew and Megan
and great-grandchildren Dylan, Lily, Rory and Alexander
who, in their turn,
are gathering memories of childhood
to one day, recount to their grandchildren
I have been here before,
But when or how I cannot tell:
I know the grass beyond the door,
The sweet keen smell,
The sighing sound, the light around the door.
D. G. Rossetti, Sudden Light
My Grandchildren - Charlotte, Tomas, Harriet,
William, Mathew and Megan
This study has concentrated largely on the records available at the Archive Offices of the City and County of Swansea, the Reference Department and Cambrian Index Offices at Swansea Library and photographs from the Oystermouth Historical Association archives. I therefore would like to thank all their Staff for their help in assisting my searches through the documents. To Moss-Vernon Portrait Studio at the Museum of Welsh Life, St. Fagans, for permitting me to publish the cover photograph; Thanks must also go to the Headmaster of Oystermouth Primary School for allowing me access to those Victorian school logbooks, which still reside on the premises.
I am grateful to Mrs. Wendy Cope for permitting me to study her research papers on the subject and for reading and commenting on the manuscript during its final stages. To Mrs. Edna Davies and my daughter, Ms. Cathryn Medwell, for taking time to read the work and put forward their suggestions; to my granddaughter, Miss Charlotte Medwell for contributing the sketches of school equipment and Victorian toys; to my daughter, Ms. Elizabeth Powell, for keeping the InAlong Publishing accounts up to date; to Mrs. Grace Thompson for her encouragement and enthusiasm throughout.
Finally, I would like to thank my Husband, John for his support and encouragement, for willingly helping me with the graphs and for helping to edit the finished product and to 'Daisy', my golden Labrador, for sitting patiently at my feet throughout the hours of typing.
I thank you all,
Carol Powell
In early 2025, my husband, John, and I announced on the Contact editors > page of this website, that we are taking a step back from researching new local history projects, but still intend to ensure that this website and our Facebook page (also entitled A History of Mumbles) are updated and available.
Re-publishing this version of my book, printed in the year 2000, has led to several changes. These include: a new title and a larger typeface and making other minor improvements. Unfortunately, I have had to omit the footnotes and the Index in this version, but they are still included in the printed book, available from us. Nevertheless, we have included the usual Bibliography.
Enjoy! Carol
The people who live history are forgotten as the spotlight follows the five percent who move the levers of Government.
A. R. Williams, novelist
Victorian Oystermouth was a seaside parish in the cwmwd of Gŵyr, cantref of Eginoy and County of Glamorgan in South Wales, situated on the western edge of Swansea Bay, some five miles from Swansea. Its boundaries extended as far as the stream at Blackpill and over to Caswell, encompassing the hamlets of Blackpill, Newton, Norton, West Cross (which was established later) as well as the village of Mumbles itself. Nowadays, the three new parishes of Oystermouth, Newton and Llwynderw serve the expanding community of this same area.
It is tempting to look back through rose-tinted spectacles to an idyllic time in a small village, with cosy cottages, views of amber-coloured skiffs in the bay, and no traffic problems. But, the reality was that life for many was hard, diseases rife, food sometimes scarce, sanitation deficient and houses overcrowded. Until early Victorian times the area had survived mostly on the oyster-dredging, fishing, limestone quarrying and farming industries, but by the 1870s, these were in decline and a new industry - tourism, was gradually developing. Additionally, as Swansea expanded and transport improved, people moved out to the countryside to escape its industrial pollution, thus increasing the resident population in the village. The needs of society were changing, bringing with them the necessity for the skills of literacy and numeracy.
Today in Britain, education is perceived to be a basic human right, but early in the 19th century, circumstances for many were vastly different. Nevertheless, during the sixty-four years of Victoria's reign, national provision of education advanced rapidly and was suitably reflected in Oystermouth, where the Parish became well supplied with government-funded, annually inspected schools.
Prior to that time, however, there had been a Church School, named Oystermouth Village School, established in 1805, with the Rev. S. Davies in charge. However, by 1847, the infamous 'Blue Books' Report described it as 'a slovenly unsystematic school of the old sort.' Additionally, there was 'a neat girls' schoolroom in the kitchen of the mistress's cottage, where the fees were 1d per week'.'
The British School, Dunns Lane.
By 1813, a British School supported by non-conformists had been opened in Dunns Lane on the site of the present library. It was described as being 'held in a commodious room, which had been raised with the aid of a grant of £30." By 1860, its Headmaster was Mr. Orrin and 95 pupils were on its rolls. One of its supporters was Henry Bath of Rosehill, who owned copper works in Swansea. Sadly, not much is known about the day-to-day operation of this school, as its logbooks do not survive.
In 1856, The National Society for the Promotion of the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church, opened a National school in All Saints' Churchrooms, under Mr. R. M. Bennett. (Note the plaque still visible on the end of the building.)
The plaque on the Churchrooms.
All Saints' Parish Churchrooms, Sheffield Terrace and Claremont Villas (A History of Mumbles).
In 1867, this was superseded by a new National schoolroom in Southend, the site later occupied by Mumbles Little Theatre, then Mumbles Motorboat and Fishing Club and latterly Patrick's with Rooms. This school operated at various times, as two separate departments for boys and girls, and, at others, as an amalgamated school under one Headteacher.
Oystermouth National Church School, Southend.
For example, prior to 1867, they all met in the Churchrooms, but once the new premises was opened they were divided into sections with Mrs. Julia Wolfe in charge of 105 girls and Mr. R. Gordon with 59 boys. By 1871, both departments were re-amalgamated at Southend and by 1877, separated again, with girls and infants then meeting at the ex-British School premises in Dunns Lane.
On 14 January 1878, following Forster's Education Act, the Oystermouth Board School opened its doors to boys, albeit in a temporary home in the Congregational Chapel Schoolrooms, whence it moved in August to the site at the top of Newton Road. Later in 1890 the Girls' and Infants' departments, which had hitherto had their own independent sections and head-teachers within the same building, were combined with the boys' school under one head-teacher and a separate premises for the infants was added in the late 1890s. These are the buildings which continue to serve the village youngsters to this day.
The hamlets of Newton and Blackpill also had their own local schools. Newton had one many years before 1847, when it was described as 'in decline... the numbers diminishing children would come for a month and then not again for six weeks. The elderly Master, by now often teaching the grandchildren of his former pupils, seemed hale and sharp. His wife helped by teaching the little ones, but remarked that 'when they do get a little proud they takes off to him." A later premises with accommodation for 75 scholars was established in 1860 and became 'grant-earning' in 1865. In 1859, Blackpill School opened as a National school with places for 100 children (although its logbook only dates from 1879). Today both are private residences.
Oystermouth was and is a fascinating place with an interesting and unique history and this volume will attempt to recount the experiences of its children during a period of immense change. It will explore their education, employment, discipline, poverty, illnesses, the dreaded annual inspections and the role of the School Attendance Officers, private education, the all-too-brief after-school leisure time and the happy care-free days of Sunday-school treats and occasional celebrations.
Allow me dear reader, to take you to school in our village during the Victorian era and endeavour to recreate those times through the experiences of several generations of its children.
Oystermouth is an important and growing Parish,
wages good, people very well off
Royal Commission on the State of Education in Wales, 1847, p.364
During the nineteenth century, many country localities experienced a rural exodus, but, not so Mumbles. This tiny village with its population of 1164 in the 1830s increased its number of residents to 4427 by 1901.
Population of Oystermouth according the censuses (A History of Mumbles).
It could be imagined therefore that the children, who wound their way to school throughout the Victorian era, would have seen many changes to their surroundings. For instance, the experiences of Catherine Bennett, and her friends in the 1830s, living in a close-knit, isolated fishing village would have differed from those of Sydney Thomas and his contemporaries, who inhabited a thriving bustling tourist hot-spot, some sixty years later.
Turnpike Road milestone at the site of the Beaufort Arms, Southend.
The early nineteenth century first saw changes in the accessibility of the area by land. For example, during the 1820s, a turnpike road, commencing outside the Beaufort Arms at Southend had been completed (see the milestone on the pavement at that spot) and soon horse-drawn buses were running services along it between Swansea and Mumbles.
The railway's floundering passenger service, which had commenced in 1807, was withdrawn in the 1830s. However, the year 1860 saw a revival of its fortunes when George Byng Morris introduced a horse-drawn passenger service from the Royal Institution to Blackpill.
Furthermore, the line between Blackpill and Oystermouth alongside the road was re-laid, enabling the service to continue onwards to the village. In 1877, on its inaugural journey, a steam train named 'Pioneer' pulled two tram-cars with eighty passengers at 8 mph to Mumbles. It soon became a regular ride and with a good deal of rivalry, horse-drawn and steam trains worked the same line for some years until the former were discontinued in 1884.
In those days, children would invariably have travelled to school on foot no cars or special buses to the door for them! On their way to the National School in the Church Rooms in the 1850s or, from 1867 its later premises near The Antelope, they might have seen Samuel Ace outside the Pilot Inn, Thomas Howells at The Ship, Mrs. Sarah Hart at the Temperance Hotel, or perhaps watched the oyster skiffs at their moorings at Horsepool.
The houses of Mumbles village and Southend overlook some beached oyster skiffs at Horsepool. Notice the tower of the second National School to the rear of the 'Prince of Wales' public house. (A History of Mumbles)
Week in, week out, from morn till night
You can hear his bellows blow;
You can hear him swing his heavy sledge,
With measured beat and slow.
Henry Longfellow, The Blacksmith
William Elliott, the stationmaster at Oystermouth Station, 1890.
Those attending the British School in Dunns Lane may have dawdled to peek at Mr. Sanders in his blacksmith's forge, Edwin Peachey's horses or to watch David Eley preparing meat in his butcher's shop - they would have taken for granted the noise and smells emanating from the slaughter house at the rear!
They might have caught a glimpse of Daniel Taylor at the Nag's Head, William Pressdee, the station-master on duty at the terminus opposite Clements Row," or William Elliot, his successor, whose portrait appears here. They would have perhaps walked past the homes of Thomas Gammon, cordwainer" or Edward Prickett, the carpenter."
The Mumbles Train at Blackpill wends its way slowly to Oystermouth: a coloured card from E. Stacey.
No field for miles around but had its gate that sooner or later would require repair;
no farmer who did not need his new cow-cribs, sheep-troughs or ladders.
No house, from the vicarage to the labourer's cottage, but had at some time or
other a defect in its woodwork, for which the services of our men would be required.
Walter Rose, The Village Carpenter
They could also have passed houses which are no longer in existence, or with addresses which have subsequently been absorbed into new ones-Sheffield Place, Somerset Place, Landsdowne Place, Castleton Terrace, Toad Place, Pond's Steps and Claremont Villas. Or Duns [sic] Cottage (later to be known as the Marine Villa), the Elms (formerly on the site of today's 'dairy' car-park), Gower House or Duns Mansion [sic], (which was demolished in the 1850s and was situated on land now partially occupied by the Square) to name but a few.
Clack, clack, clack went the mill-wheel as I came,
And she was on the bridge with the thin hand-rail,
And the miller at the door, and the ducks at mill-tail;
I come again years after, and all there seems the same.
Thomas Hardy The Second Visit
Those youngsters making their way to Blackpill, which had been a tiny hamlet in 1845, may have glimpsed the wooded drives and frontages of the big houses The Grange, Danycoed, and Llwynderw House, or passed Lilliput Hall and the Brinny and Woodman Inns. Latterly, following the growth of the area due to the increasing employment of villagers at the Castle, they might have known George Hopkins in the Post Office," Mr. Morgan at the Mill, or Richard Davies, Blackpill Station Master at the LNW railway, which could be seen passing above the road near the coal depot. For those at Norton, there were several public houses, among them the Beaufort Arms, with Landlord, Henry Nicholas," and the Three Salmons. There were also three large houses Norton Villa, Norton Lodge and Norton Hall, later renamed Norton House. At West Cross was only Osborne House, the Currant Tree public house, a Post Office and the toll gate. At Newton, in 1845 an already much larger hamlet than the others, John Woolacott was the landlord at the Rock and Fountain, Sarah Long at the Ship and Castle (later a post office) and John Davies at the Ship.
A generation later, for those walking from Outalong to the Board School on Newton Road, there would have been a stiff climb up the hill, still bordered on the right by fields where, in the summer donkeys stood awaiting hire. Onwards past, Marine Villa and the premises of John Jones, the Baker on the left, and the Misses Potts' and Hannah Riddell's schools, on the right, to their school on the corner of Limekiln Lane and Newton Road.
Outsiders, many continuing to work in Swansea, came west to live in the locality, perhaps to get away from the town's copper-smoke atmosphere, transport on the train and bus facilitating easy access for commuters. Likewise, some villagers were able to work in Swansea. Numerous people moved in to open shops, for example, A. J. Chappell; the fishmonger, and George Lee's Drapery Warehouse and, by 1899 John Eley was the Proprietor of the family's Butcher shop."
Many new houses were built, such as those at Park Street, John Street, William Street and Gloucester Place and those to accommodate the 'Coastguard' families at Church Fields. Other major changes in the village also transformed its appearance: Firstly, a new road connecting Langland with Oystermouth was completed in 1856, the first lifeboat started its service in 1866, and the Oystermouth Water Works Co. Ltd., in 1882. While in place of a lot of gardens, which disfigured the foreshore, we have an attractive promenade and the Mumbles Railway was extended from Oystermouth across the outer reaches of Horsepool, to meet the new pier in 1898, thereby removing the erstwhile haven for the mooring of skiffs.
Religious buildings, most of which are still in evidence today, were completed at this time. For example, The Primitive Methodists' meeting room opened in 1850 (later to become a Christadelphian Church). Bethany Baptist Church was inaugurated at West Cross in 1855; the Bible Christian Chapel at Glen Road in 1856; the Parish Church underwent renovations in the 1860s; the Tabernacle Congregational Church opened in 1870; the second and third premises of the Methodists opened in 1860 and 1877 and the Paraclete Church at Newton was renovated in 1880.
Shops and Tearooms in the Dunns, as well as children playing in the street, 1890.
By the 1890s, there were many shops and tearooms in the village and The Dunns, with its premises by now on both sides of the road, was a vibrant thoroughfare. The industries of oyster-dredging, fishing, boat-building and quarrying which had traditionally supported the villagers prior to this period, had declined and tourism was rapidly gathering ground, with many villagers opening their homes to visitors For example, George Curtis at Rock Villa, Philip Harris of Albion House and Agnes Davies at Southend Villas.
Nevertheless, as late as 1878, much of the surrounding area was still rural, with agriculture still supporting thirty farmers and their families, among them - John Ackland at Boarspit, Margaret Bennett at Coltshill, Charles Gammon at Newton, John Tucker, in the Mayals, and Robert Westcott at West Cross. Sheep still meandered along the narrow green cliff lanes and there were fields with such fascinating names as Higher and Lower Silly Verland, Day's Loan, Little Harry's Loan and Little Cathy's Acres. Who were little Harry and Cathy whose names have been etched forever on the 1845 tithe map?
By 1880, The Handbook to Swansea and District was describing the village as:
A higgledy, piggledy collection of poor cottages, respectable terraces, commodious villas, hotels, public houses and shops . . . and a labyrinth of small streets.
Flowing alongside this period of immense countrywide social and economic change, a far-reaching transformation in the lives of several generations and an increasing number of children (seven hundred of school age in the Parish by the 1890s) was materializing.
But to go to school on a summer's morn,
Oh, it drives all joy away!
Under a cruel eye outworn,
The little ones spend the day
In sighing and dismay.
William Blake, The Schoolboy
The Education Act of 1862 (the Revised Code) introduced 'payments by results' as a system for monitoring attendance, checking progress and verifying expenditure of the Government grant money. This meant that teachers' salaries and the school grant would henceforth be paid according to the regularity of children's attendance and their progress. Among its clauses was one which laid down that teachers were to keep a register of attendance and a logbook or diary of the week's events - 'the briefest entry that will suffice... which may require to be referred to at a future time or may otherwise deserve to be recorded.' For a more detailed synopsis of the laws enacted by Parliament concerning the provision of education for the children of the working classes, see the Afterword, as the main theme of this book is the story of life in the school rooms of Oystermouth.
Girls pose for a photograph outside the Oystermouth Board School, c.1890.
The school day would begin with the marking of the register and would be followed, in the Church schools, by Religious Instruction from the local Clergy, Minister or teachers. Lessons would then commence with children sitting in pairs at desks which, unlike today, all faced the teacher at the front of the classroom. The subjects studied were laid down in the national curriculum of the day, as set out in the Education Act - not a new idea! The children were put into 'Standards', categorised broadly by ability. Every Standard was to study set subjects to set levels and once a year the scholars were to progress to the next level.
In 1862, only readin', 'ritin' and 'rithmetic the 3Rs, together with needlework for the girls were grant-earning subjects and much time was taken up with preparing children for the annual examinations (see Chapter Seven). Later, in 1867, Grammar, History and Geography were added to the list and in 1875, these became 'class' subjects, i.e. examined in groups rather than individually. In 1890, drawing and market gardening were added for the boys and dairying and housewifery for the girls. By the end of the century there was a wide curriculum and payments by results had been abolished.
At other occasions, time permitting, non-grant-earning studies such as girls being taught to make buttonholes, knitting, singing and poetry might be included. Songs on the syllabus in 1881 were: The Robin, The Indian warrior's Grave, Come! Come!, Heart of Oak, Far Away and some patriotic ones - Hurrah for England and God Bless the Prince of Wales. In 1887, Newton children were to sing Put your weary work aside (St. I), The Violet (St. II), The Crystal Spring (St. III) and Cows and Horses (St. IV). They were also required to learn by heart, the poems: The Boy who told a Lie (St. I), I'm only a Little Sparrow (St. II), Lucy Grey (St. III), Llewelyn and his Dog (St. IV) and The Lady of the Lake (St. V). Object lessons were Cow, Sheep, Apple, Glass, Shilling, Ass, Sugar, Water, Coal and Sunday.
Newton boys gather for a school photograph, with their teacher Ellen Howard, 1890s. (Photo: M. A. Clare).
For the girls, there was needlework in the afternoons and at Newton the headmistresses conscientiously noted their achievements. Jane Williams and Annie Howells commenced their garments for the exam,' 'Louise Thompson completed her night-dress on Thursday; and knitting 'many mothers have asked to have their children taught stocking knitting.' Once there was tapestry when 'Mrs. Mainwaring brought canvas and wool to teach the older girls to mark. Some time later, 'Edith Mack completed her sampler.'
Sometimes there was a new subject to master, such as when the teacher at Newton, 'gave the older children a lesson on farthings.' She recorded that they were surprised, as they had never seen any because they were not used in Wales.' On another occasion, mat-plaiting was introduced for the infants. 'The girls did it nicely, but the boys were careless and clumsy.' To help the little ones, the teacher 'taught them to count with oak-apples.'
Headmaster, teacher and a group of boys at Oystermouth National School, 1901.
However, not all children could keep up with the class and some of the teachers were forthright in their comments. For example, 'Flora Michael reads very badly, in St. I, William Davies and James Brown, are really very stupid boys, Robert Michael of St. II has a 'weak intellect' while in St. III, Gammon and Thomas are very dull.' At Newton, 'I cannot teach Jane Owen to write, one girl in St. I is exceedingly stupid - she cannot learn one subject.' At Blackpill, 'two boys in St. IV are backward in writing'. A new teacher at Newton, Elizabeth Hogg 'found the children so backward that she discontinued teaching geography! Some such as Minnie Lewis, C. Chipps, James Bolsden, Oliver John, William Sutton and Ernest Jones were placed on the exception list. for dullness.'
Today, these children would probably be found to be dyslexic, deaf, or short-sighted and it is hoped, helped accordingly.
Boys at Oystermouth Board School in the 'drill' lesson circa, 1890.
As well as the brick bats, there was occasional praise. For example, 'Christopher Lloyd and William Jones of St. VII are able to work out nearly all the sums in the New Tutor, J. Ellery's Course of Arithmetic and in Newton School, 'writing nicely done.' 'Mary Gwynn, Ethel Myles and William Thompson repeated their hymns and home prayers very good [sic].
Some received compliments and censure - 'Jesse Rosser made a great improvement in his writing but very little in his reading and arithmetic.
Newton School.
Children's education was likely to have been disrupted periodically because of Staff moving on to other jobs. For example, from the time that their logbooks were introduced, Oystermouth National School had twelve Headteachers in all, four in one year alone, although William Linnard was Master twice. Newton had five; Blackpill, six, including Mr. Linnard; Oystermouth Board School Infants' department, five, the Girls' Department, five, whereas Mr. Bessant remained at the Boys' Department from 1878 until his death in 1914. They were usually assisted by Pupil Teachers, among whom were Matilda Richards, Edith Bailey and Selina Beynon and Monitors, some of whom were Louisa Pressdee, Mr. A. C. Phipps and Maria Parry.' However, there were occasions when, 'The Mistress who has been in charge for ten months, has had to teach five standards and two Classes of infants without any paid helpers.'
Under these conditions Teaching was (and is) a demanding career. However, their role was made a little easier by the time, interest, support and practical help given by some of the Ladies of the locality. The assistance offered varied from the practical to the charitable. For example, in Oystermouth National school, The Misses Grumbly assisted occasionally with the girls needlework lessons or reading. At Newton, the Misses Emma and Harriet Strick, of Brynfield, took the 1st and 2nd classes for reading and, at another time, heard the catechism. On 14 August 1865, the Misses Amy Strick and Phillips listened to the children singing while on 18 September, Mrs Welby examined their writing. On 7 January 1870, in the needlework lesson, '21 chemises were finished for Mrs. Eliza Crawshay,' (Llan-y-llan) and 'Mrs Mainwaring, (Newton Villa) took the knitting lesson on Thursday afternoon', although Elizabeth Hocking was unable to participate as 'she had boils on her hands.'
Some ladies helped by providing materials. For example, 'Miss Young brought wool and left £1 to buy needles to learn [sic] the girls knitting and calico for them to sew which would afterwards be given to the poorer scholars. Miss Strick gave material for the girls to make aprons to sell at the school bazaar and on another occasion, 30 thimbles.'
On a more practical level, Miss Havergal gave the boys and infants dinner in school and a bun and apple each and Mrs Mainwaring thoughtfully sent a basket of apples to distribute among the children. On 1 November 1878, 'Miss Havergal brought a patent mineral by which the children at Newton warmed their hands' and during the cold winter. of 1895,' '1/2d dinners were given to all children who cared to stay. These comprised cocoa and cake or soup and bread, and were continued for the duration of the cold weather. They were paid for by voluntary subscriptions.'
Then, as now, supplies of teaching materials were required. Nowadays, a teacher might put in an order for biros, cellotape, exercise books or paint, but the Victorian staff had different requirements. For example, a fresh supply of slates, some needles and cotton, a load of coal, some new material for school work from Griffiths, the bookseller, parchment, or even 'a new blackboard and easel were some of the items needed.'
Sometimes, if the items had not arrived, the teachers purchased articles themselves, such as 'string to the value 2d and inch nails to the value of 1d or a jar of ink and a box of pens at 1s.71/2d.' For others, the solution was that 'the children must find their own slates.' Occasionally, a teacher would ask the near impossible, for example, at Blackpill, Mr. Linnard requested an extra classroom, but Mr. Vivian did not see the necessity for it 'as this is only a village school.' However, following an Inspector's recommendation, it was later provided.
Illustration: Charlotte Medwell.
Commercial enterprises often supported the education process with gifts for use in the classroom. For example, 'specimens of cocoa from J. S. Fry & Son and a map from the Union Steamship Co., or 'a parcel of toys from Sunlight soap makers to be given as prizes in a writing competition.'
We can see that schooltime in the 19th century was a rather different experience in very many aspects to that of today, although similar in some respects in that learning targets, annual inspection and tight financial resources continue to worry many teachers.
Boys above Standard III must pay 3d per week.
Oystermouth National School logbook, January 1869
There were three main sources of income for the Voluntary schools Government grants, occasional fund-raising events, the children's pennies and in addition, for the Board School, the local rates.
The Annual Inspection from Her Majesty's Inspectors was an ordeal for both pupils and teachers as on the performance that day, rested the year's grant (see Chapter Seven). From 1862, the Revised code stipulated that henceforth, the amount of grant would depend on the individual child's performance in the annual examinations in the 3Rs and on his or her school attendance. As a consequence, it was in the teachers' financial interest to get children to attend as many times as possible.
Sometimes the teachers, although doing their utmost, could lose out on income for their school through no fault of their own. For example, at Mumbles in 1867, HMI Binns 'could not allow a grant on account of the lighthouse children who had attended less than 200 times in the year, which could have been accomplished in 20 weeks of 5 days each. He could not agree that the weather had made it impossible for them to attend to that degree.
The children of the Lighthouse must often have had a rather difficult journey getting to school, as the island was cut off by the tide twice a day. Photo: c.1880 by Harvey Barton.
Others lost money because of their own inefficiencies, such as when HMI Binns found that Mrs. Wiseman had not marked the class registers, since the 2nd week in July last. All attendances made by the scholars from then to the present time are consequently lost to the school."
Some lost money because of poor examination results, for example at Newton, 'the grant was reduced by both as the children had passed so bad an exam in arithmetic.
While at Blackpill:
The instruction is not in a satisfactory state in the Standards and no class subjects were taken . . . no specimens of knitting were exhibited... the infants have been taught almost nothing. HMI is therefore unable to recommend the payment of the grant and any future grant will depend on the Manager carrying into effect the Inspector's requirements.
School finances were augmented with fund-raising events such as when a concert was held by the Oystermouth Glee Class in the British School in aid of the school funds. The National Schools held 'a bazaar on Langland lawn and 'at the Old Castle.' On one occasion, their bazaar held in July 1891 raised £136.2.11d - a great deal of money! The children themselves were involved in the efforts 'two boys raised 30/-for footballs for the school recreation club" and the girls at Newton School 'made garments in the needlework class to be sold towards school funds.'¹º A concert put on by the children, culminating with a magic lantern, raised £1.10s for the school prize fund." This enabled 41 prizes to be presented later that year.
All schools, both Board and Voluntary, charged fees which went towards the upkeep of the premises, the teachers' wages and school equip-ment. From the ordinary families' standpoint, especially those with several school-age children, the payment of 'school pence' often proved difficult, especially in times of hardship, such as when the oyster industry was in decline. Poverty and distress increased to such a degree that a soup kitchen and a Skiff District Relief Fund were set up." As Mr. Griffiths wrote 'many of the boys have not paid fees since I've been here. Hard Times is the plea. Parents seem too poor to spare even a copper now and then for the proper education of their children." Mrs. Michael said she could not afford the fees. At Mumbles, only 10/40 boys brought their fees, several owing 3 or 4 weeks from the previous quarter." One HMI, possibly without a grasp of the reasons for non-payment, suggested a system of prepayment of fees to encourage parents to pay:
'with an increasing discount in proportion as the prepayment extends over a longer period is often found to be an efficacious plan. The discount encourages prepayment, and prepayment creates an interest in using what has been paid for.'
However, there were occasions when the parent had given the fees, but they had not arrived at the school 'punished Thomas Llewelyn for spending his school money.' 'Willie Mack's mother said she had given him his fees and had not kept him home.'
Some teachers tried introducing incentives, such as, 'Master promised to issue tickets weekly for punctual as well as regular attendance." The following year, 'Mr. Welby distributed 32 books to those who, in six months, had made 200 attendances. At Newton, the teacher 'presented slates to infants for regular attendance" and "Lilly Mack received a nice box and Thomas Owen, some paints for being the most regular attenders. The local Ladies encouraged them with prizes - 'Mrs. Main-waring presented Henry Gwynn and Winifred Howells with a book for good attendance. On another occasion she 'promised a prize to each child who would learn the first chapter of Genesis and repeat the same creditably at Easter.
Sometimes other villagers helped with payment of the fees - 'Mrs. Parsons visited and paid 3s.6d for Daniel Claypit and Emily Michael's schooling' and 'Miss Young kindly promised to pay the fees of Edith and Maria Mortimer'
Some parents appreciated the value of education to the extent that they attended school themselves. For example, 'dredger attended for the day as it was too stormy for the oyster boats to go out. Charged him 1d per day.
Nevertheless, parents would sometimes punish a teacher by sending their children to another school, thus losing that establishment a little of its grant plus the children's pence - 'Mrs. Rosser informs me that her six children are leaving because the oldest boy was punished this morning for extreme carelessness. They will attend the Board School.
However, occasionally a week of good attendance and payment of fees was noted - 'school pence 9/- this week. Good attendance' or 'pence 13/2d, highest for four years.
Schools, in their quest for financial boosts, vied with each other for the children's attendance and in the case of Oystermouth Board School v the National School, the details became public knowledge, the ongoing argument sharply debated in the press:
The Vicar is under the impression that by keeping open his schools, he is saving the ratepayer a considerable sum of money
. . . he is probably paying money out of his own pocket and keeping a certain sum out of the ratepayers' pockets, which could be earned by the present Board Schools were they full. . . the rate instead of increasing would then be lessened, as the expenses of the building would be very little more.
The following week, the Vicar countered with the argument that there was room for 460 children at the Church schools and that there were approximately 700 children of school age in the parish, leaving aside the expanding population. The Board would have to spend a lot of money on expansion . . . would the extra 'pence' and Government grant suffice even if they were doubled?'
The paper hit back with the fact that a great proportion of the National children paid no fees and that was the reason for good attendances there
School fees constituted a problem for many years, especially for many people with large families, for how could they afford even 2d a week each for perhaps six children to attend school, if the bread-winner might only have earned about 8/-? The Times supported the abolition of fees, commenting that, "The great majority of the public. . . are clearly of the opinion that the enforcement of education upon the poor, at their own expense, is a grievance from which they might reasonably seek relief.'
But it was only in 1891 that free education became law - 'a red-letter day in the history of elementary education'.
That sour tree of knowledge now a birch.
Thomas Hood, The Irish Schoolmaster, St.12.
Of course, even kindly teachers had to keep some sort of order in the classroom, but some appeared to have been extremely stern disciplinarians. Mr. Appleby, one of the latter, who became Master at Oystermouth National School in 1884, was in charge of a lot of troublesome boys who needed caning. Oscar Rowe, John Childs, J. Brace, Charles Howell, Fred Jenkins, William Parker, William Thomas and Thomas Willians 'are the worst.' However, Mr. Wormiston who succeeded Mr. Appleby, 'found the boys not so ill behaved as reports made me believe. Other instances of misbehaviour requiring punishment included 'punishing a boy for gross indecency,' 'expelling a boy for disgraceful conduct and William Gammon was punished for 'being wayward with the girls' - shades of 'Georgy-peorgy' perhaps? Two William Gammons had started school on the same day 18 March 1870, consequently we will never know which of these was punished.
Oystermouth National School Logbook
Mr. Appleby records a typical week in school (extract from the logbook).
Some, such as William Mack were punished for playing truant, although this seems to have been ineffectual as again on 6 August 1868, 'punished William Mack for playing truant by keeping him in at lunchtime, but he made his escape before 2.00 p.m. and was absent all afternoon. Twenty-one years later, another Willie Mack, perhaps his son or nephew, 'was absent four times in the past week. The School Attendance Officer called on his mother who said she had not kept him home.' At the Board School, the teacher noted that 'Henry Beynon and Herbert Andrews were guilty of disobedient conduct,' but, on returning to school, 'each expressed his sorrow for his disobedience and promised better behaviour.’ At Newton school, Willie Jones 'was kept in two days as punishment for his disobedience;' 'William Owen has been most rude and disobedient. He is always a very troublesome boy and takes no interest in his work; and 'several of the bigger boys have been punished for playing football in the yard after school has been dismissed. They climb over the wall every Friday, while at the Oystermouth National school, 'William Thomas wanted to fight Theodore Davies.'
The Master there appears to have had the support of some parents, one of whom brought his son to school to be reprimanded. However, the boy, George Jenkins, 'refused to do any work and was impertinent to the Inspector.' Francis Grove was punished with his mother's consent, for 'refusing to do his home lessons and for stopping out late.'
Nevertheless, although corporal punishment may have been acceptable to many parents, some teachers must have over-stepped the mark as by 1887, the Mumbles Chronicle was reporting that the local School Board had 'become notorious for punishment and cruelty.'
Vandalism was also a problem - 'boys pulling putty out of the newly installed windows' and 'throwing stones onto the roof from the hill above.' 'R. Penn broke two large panes of glass' and 'Felix Kleiser threw stones at the school door. '
Illustration: Charlotte Medwell.
Some children were just to us perhaps, amusingly naughty - 'T. J. Ace called the Attendance Officer names,' and 'Miss Ogborne complained of someone throwing crackers into her room.' But can you imagine the scene when William Austin and Thomas Williams 'introduced small crabs into the school and let them run about the floor.' By now, Mr. Appleby appears to have reached the end of his tether as he left shortly after!
I found a thin attendance. There had been a wreck
. . . all the bigger boys were gone to look at it.
HMI Report for the Church School,
Mumbles, 1847, p. 364.
Although teachers were keen to get as many children to attend as possible, several reasons emerge for absences, over which they could have had no control - children's poor health, helping out in the community when needed, migration of families seeking work elsewhere and the effect of the weather.
Overcrowded homes, a non-existent sewage system, a growing poverty among the oyster families, resulting in a poorer diet, comprised a recipe for the spread of disease and an inevitably increased child mortality rate. In the event of even a comparatively serious illness, parents were loath to call in the doctors, as many could not afford the subsequent bill. Accordingly, traditional herbal and folk remedies were called upon for such ailments as earache, when a small heated shallot would be placed in the ear and covered with flannel, a linseed poultice could be applied for pneumonia or goose grease for a cold on the chest.
Nettle out, dock in
Dock remove the nettle sting
Country lore
For those who could afford them, proprietary medicines such as Alkaline Compound of Sarsaparilla or Friend in Need ointment could be obtained in the shops and the Methodist Times, advertised what must be the most incredible cure of all - 'the patent self-adjusting curative and electric belt' for debility, painful dreams and indigestion!
However, medical progress after 1870 was rapid, as the bacteria responsible for diseases such as cholera, tuberculosis, diphtheria, typhoid and plague began to be identified. The application of these scientific discoveries to the saving of life involved various different processes.
An advert for emigration,
The Cambrian News, 3 January 1862.
It had been suspected for many years that cholera, which had killed two people in the village in 1849 and typhoid, which in 1882 affected six villagers albeit non fatally, were carried in water.
Thus the effective prevention of these two diseases depended on securing pure water supplies, surely one of the greatest public health achievements of the nineteenth century. However, improvements in the more remote parts of the country, such as Oystermouth, took time to filter through. From 1875, when the Local Board was established, progress in Public Health began to be felt in the village. Wells were dug, drains constructed, nuisances could be reported and cleansing enforced. Even so, by 1886, the privies in Village Lane were still dilapidated and filthy and by September 1894, Newton School still did not have a supply of running water, only a cask. In December 1886, all 71 owners of cowsheds and 'sellers of milk' in the parish were registered and in January 1890, the Diseases Notification Act came into force.
Other infectious diseases such as diphtheria were not water-borne, therefore isolation was vital and indeed, the only recourse in the years prior to immunization. The school logbooks continually and graphically illustrate the effects of constant outbreaks of illness on attendance. In Oystermouth National School in 1869, 'the fever is very bad about the village. Some children has [sic] it, others away because they are afraid of catching it.
By October 'three or four dead in the village.' In August 1870, the Teacher at Newton School reported 'small pox in the village" and that children were still returning to school in the September. The measles outbreak at Blackpill was noted thus:
13 May 1887, outbreak of measles, therefore attendance low; 18 May, 'Lots absent. Therefore, closed the school for the rest of the week; 20 May, 'so many children are ill that it is absolutely necessary to close for some time;' 8 June, 'school recommenced although attendance low;' 17 June, 'some still ill.
A peaceful scene in Victorian Newton, masks the harsh reality of life for many of its inhabitants. (A History of Mumbles)
At the Oystermouth Board School in January 1892, there were 'only 135 out of 220 children in school because of measles and other infectious diseases. Other ailments recorded were 'scarlet fever,' 'mumps,' 'typhoid at Blackpill' and at Newton, 'several children at home with severe colds who are slowly bettering.' [sic]
The plight of individual children was noted, for example at Mumbles, 'Willie Johnson's eyes are very bad;’ 'Jane Lewis very ill with inflammation of the lungs;' 'William Williams died of diphtheria.'
Alexandra Terrace, on the Mumbles Road, at Norton Station. (Photo: Ronald Studden)
At Blackpill 'One boy's head was in such a condition that the Master sent him home to undergo a thorough cleaning operation.' At Newton 'Dora and Alice Parry, Maggie Williams, Rosa Higgs, George and Annie Hixson had the whooping cough.' ‘Nelly and Willie Elliott returned to school in Black-pill on Monday after being absent six weeks.' William was destined to be one of the twelve young Blackpill men - 112 throughout the Parish, to die on the battlefields of the Great War.
Sometimes there was an unexpected holiday for the children, such as that at Blackpill when, 'the school closed for a week because of teacher's illness. Another had typhoid.
Often the school buildings themselves were not conducive to good health. One instance was at Mumbles, where in a fairly new premises, 'the schoolroom very wet as the roof is in a bad condition caused by the boys throwing stones from the hill above.22 As late as 1881, the census continued to record cases of overcrowding in many cottages. How did these and many other families cope? For example, John and Ann Childs lived at 7, Dick Slade [sic] in 'one bedroom and a slope with their eleven children ranging from David at 18 years of age, down to the baby, Sarah, aged five months. William and Jane Pressdee and their six children lived at John Street. In Clyne Lodge at Blackpill, David and Sarah Edwards brought up their seven children." At Park Villa, admittedly much larger with its eleven rooms, there were two John Tuckers, both aged 48, and their respective families. One had two children and the other, twelve, one of whom was Albina Tucker, aged 11, later Monitress at to be a Oystermouth Board School.'
Nevertheless, the Medical Officer, Dr. Jumeaux, in his report to the Local Board in 1880, said:
Without question, this must be one of the healthiest places in Great Britain.
It is evident that the farming calendar was responsible for many absences. For example, children were away 'ploughing,' 'picking seaweed,' 'potatoe [sic] planting,' 'potato hoeing and weeding,' and on through the year until 'assisting in hay-gathering,' 'wheat harvest,' 'potato gathering" and 'blackberrying.'
Harvest approaches with its bustling day
The wheat tans brown and barley bleaches grey
In yellow garb the oat land intervenes
And tawney glooms the valley thronged with beans
John Clare, The Shepherd's Calendar.
In the early 1860s, Mumbles brought in a contribution to public health, prior to the formation of a Local Board, with the introduction of a communal fountain.
It was decided to mark the marriage on 10 March 1863, of the then Prince of Wales (later to be King Edward VII) to Princess Alexandra of Denmark, in a way in which the village would benefit too. As clean drinking water was coming to be seen as an important priority in the battle for public health, a communal fountain was decided upon for a village that, as yet, had no proper water supplies.
At Newton, the tourist trade made a dent in attendance as 'girls and boys away driving donkeys,' the season lasting from Easter until the autumn. In 1896, the parents of Richard Higgs, William Beynon and David Hixson were summonsed because the boys had been absent nearly every fine day during that summer.'
The two boys on the left were 'Donkey Drivers' and may have been missing school, so as to take this well dressed group and their attendants, to the bays.
At Mumbles, the oyster and fishing trades claimed the time of many youngsters 'boys gone out oyster catching,' 'bigger children loading a French vessel with oysters' and 'several absent selling fish.'
Other children's occupations were not seasonal Mildred Owen's mother asked permission for her to leave school at 4.00 p.m. every day 'to take out the milk' 'several boys absent as pigeon shooting taking place,' 'the boys have gone beating,' or 'one girl kept home because her mother was ill.'
From the 1870s onwards, perhaps due to increasing hardship in the locality, many people were on the move seeking work in new places. This, of course was felt in the schoolrooms, where 'four children left. Gone to Australia; or 'two families have left the district which means a loss of seven children.' Some, however, only changed schools, for example, 'Philip Beynon gone to Oystermouth National School,' while others such as 'the Andersons have moved to Sketty to live.'
'They were always prompt with their fees and making good progress in lessons' and 'Amelia Walford is now attending a private school at the Mumbles.' The teacher seemed delighted to report 'that she was readmitted on July 1892 and was not so forward as when she left.'
Rain, rain, go away, come back another day
Before the days of waterproof clothing and Wellington boots, children were sure to get soaked walking to school on a rainy day. Consequently the weather played a significant part in many absences - 'Gale blowing with snow, therefore only ten present, so dismissed school for the day;' or 'weather very wet preventing a few children from a great distance to attend [sic].' However, at Oystermouth Board School, 'weather very cold but full school,' this perhaps, to save the parents having to light a fire at home? Conversely, fine weather was also an excuse for some absences - 'children are required after the rain to dig up the late potatoes’ and 'delightful weather, therefore some kept at home to assist parents.’
Nevertheless, despite working, school discipline, cramming for the annual examinations, cold schoolrooms and stern teachers, these were the lucky ones. A study of the school logbooks and parish records reveals many funerals for school-age children when despite the assurances of Dr. Jumeaux, poverty, poor health, dubious drinking water, accidents and childhood diseases took their toll. These statistics of course, exclude those children whose funeral services were held in places of worship other than the Parish Church, but it is probable that there was a similar pattern.
The peak of school-age mortality coincided with the sudden decline in the oyster industry
Between 1861 and 1871, there was a tremendous rise in population, necessitating many having to live in greater proximity. Public Health measures were yet to be implemented or legally enforced, infectious diseases abounded, which coinciding with the oyster industry's decline and consequent resultant poverty, were perhaps some causes of the steep increase in childhood mortality, which is illustrated on the graph during that period.
Children were consequently introduced to death at a very early age, when brothers, sisters and erstwhile school friends succumbed fatally to illness. For example, 'Little Willie Owen died,' as did David Stephens and Mary Ann Parry. Margaret Howells died of smallpox.
Several families lost more than one child, for example, William Howell, 9, and his sister, Elizabeth, 10, died within a fortnight of each other in 1876 and Thomas, 10 and Elizabeth Hixon, 9, died in May and November of 1896. In April 1863, the Watkins family at Clyne Farm lost four siblings aged five, eight, eleven and eighteen together with their grand-father, aged sixty-nine, within two weeks."
Sometimes an accident rather than disease was the cause of the tragedy 'Children attending John Hixson's funeral, he having drowned.'
Thus, there were numerous reasons for absences, although there was one, prevalent in many areas but conspicuous by its absence in the logbooks of the Parish of Oystermouth, namely that 'little Johnnie/Mary could not attend school because he/she had no shoes.
Boys driven in through the energy of the Children's Officer
Oystermouth Board School logbook, 20 December 1878
In 1870, the Forster Education Act empowered School Boards to enforce attendance in their schools, which would 'fill the gaps on the map', where the Church was not already involved. Each child was to be provided with an elementary school place and, in areas where the existing voluntary schools were unable to meet this need, local ratepayers were to form an elected School Board, financed partly out of the rates. However, in rural areas generally, relatively few School Boards were established, Oystermouth being one of the exceptions.
In some parishes, Boards were resisted on the grounds of expense, as people objected to the increase in the rates, which would have to support a Board's school provisions and pay the cost of triennial elections of its Members.
The Boards were permitted to make byelaws relating to school attendance and the appointment of attendance officers, but The School Board Chronicle of 5 June 1880 commented on the 'curious omission in Mr. Forster's Act that the School boards were not under any obligation to put their byelaws into force.' They did however have their supporters, such as the Welsh MP, Watkin Williams, who for years had 'been in favour of a national system of unsectarian education.’ At that time compulsory schooling did not apply to those pupils not attending Board Schools, therefore in 1876, a Circular to Boroughs without School Boards as to appointment of School Attendance Officers was sent out. Lord Sandon, architect of the Act, believed that it was the duty of School Boards and School Attendance Committees, which had been introduced for voluntary schools, to enforce their byelaws and that parents should have the duty of sending their children to school.
Oystermouth Local Board Bye Laws.
From 1870, School Attendance Officers (still known in the 1950s as Board Men) over 21 years of age were appointed. Their duties were to attend all meetings of the Committee, to make inquiries into cases of employment of children, and as to their nonattendance at school. They were to record their proceedings and the result of their inquiries in a book, provided for them, and to disclose the contents to the Committee at each meeting.' However, Attendance officers, many of whom were also Poor Law Relieving Officers or local shopkeepers, were usually part-time and poorly paid, for example, Mr. Morris was a butcher. Mr. Sanders and Mr. Phillips, also had other jobs. Consequently, the quality of recruits could be inadequate, for what was such an unpopular, yet demanding job, in a locality where everyone knew everyone else. If they were busy with their businesses, they could not perhaps give the time necessary for their duties as Officers. For example, in April 1880, Mary Mattey, the Mistress at Blackpill recorded that 'School Attendance Officer has not visited since January.' In 1881, the succeeding Master, Mr. John Jones, wrote in exasperation that, 'Attendance is worse than ever, no Officer seems to look after the children.' Even by 1899, the annual Reports of the Committee of Council on Education, continued to plead that School Attendance Officers would never be of much use in securing regular school attendance, until they were paid an adequate enough salary to enable them to be impartial in their judgments.
School Attendance Certificate
If children were regularly found not attending school or parents were not paying the fees, and persuasion had not worked, the Board could prosecute and parents summonsed and fined. For example, the parents of Llewelyn Jones, William Thomas, St. V, Fred Hoppe, St. V, William Michael, St. IV, Polly Trevor, William Parry, William Dunkerley. Rosa and Mabel Higgs were summonsed. In May 1889, eleven people appeared before the Bench for not sending their children to school. A month later, David Baglow of Norton, and Mira Michael and Edith Lewis of Village Lane were summonsed 'for neglecting to send their children to school.' Mrs. Michael told the magistrates that she could not afford the fees and her daughter was continually sent home. The Bench advised her to make arrangements with the Attendance Officer about the fees.
Consequently, the Attendance Officer's was not a popular job and many children were often frightened of coming across him out in the locality if they were not at school for some reason.
The Lighthouse was cut off by the tide twice a day. c.1900 postcard.
The Inspector of Schools came once a year there was no singing or quarrelling on the way to school that morning. The children walked deep in thought... with spelling or table books ... trying to make up in an hour for all their wasted yesterdays.
Flora Thompson, Lark Rise to Candleford (London, 1973) p. 188.
In order to become eligible for a Government Grant, schools had to agree to annual inspections. Those at Oystermouth appear to have grasped this opportunity reasonably quickly as the earliest is recorded as around 1835, when the British School received a grant. From 1862, with the introduction of the Revised Code and its aims of monitoring expenditure and progress, the entire school year became geared to cramming the youngsters to the required level for each Standard, rather than stretching each child to his or her full potential. The only grant-earning subjects, initially were the 3Rs, singing and needlework.
In the early days, different Inspectors had scrutinised different denominations of schools within the same area. However, this practice came to be seen as inefficient and from 1862, the same group of Inspectors checked all grant-aided schools in any given locality. If successful, the money was then paid to the school managers who would allocate the teacher's wages and expenditure for equipment. Building and maintenance grants were also assessed but separately allotted.
The Inspector visited the premises on a pre-arranged day to report on the state of the building, the quality and supply of equipment, calibre of Religious Instruction and teachers' and pupils' performance in the required subjects. This of course, included needlework of which they, being men could have had scant knowledge. For example, 'the proper holding of the needle is not well taught.' Following criticism of this aspect, 'duly qualified women were chosen where there was likely to be sufficient work for them.'
The stress placed on teachers was inevitably transferred to the scholars in the few weeks before the exams just as the HMI's overbearing attitude would be clearly communicated to both teachers and pupils on the day - 'Some that are for examinations attend very irregularly. Only four this week,' and, in a note of desperation, 'I cannot get the parents to send their children regular [sic]. I am continually sending after them.'
Grange Cottage, an illustration by Carol Powell, 1957.
Anxiously it was recorded that, 'Richard Muxworthy, who is to be presented for examination has been unable to attend school this week on account of illness. 'Richard lived with his parents and six brothers and sisters at Grange Cottage, a little two-bedroomed dwelling with a large rambling garden, near the sea between Lilliput and West Cross. Alas, it was demolished in the late 1950s and nothing of its existence remains save for an apple tree and imprints on the bough of an oak, from a swing where children once played.
Children were tested individually according to their Standard. For example, children in St. I, were expected to be capable of reading narra- tive in monosyllables; writing capital and small letters on a blackboard or slate from dictation and write or name on sight, figures up to 20; add or subtract figures up to 10, orally from examples on the blackboard. The requirements would progress in stages up to St. VI, where the pupils would be asked to read an ordinary paragraph in a newspaper or 'modern narrative'; write a short paragraph dictated once from a newspaper or narrative and work out a sum 'in practice or bill of parcels." The range of grant-earning subjects was also gradually increased (see Chapter Two) and in 1882, St. VII was introduced, however, most had left by that time as the necessity to work called them.
The comments, which were included in the annual Reports of the Committee of Council on Education, and copied into the logbooks, were frank, precise, extremely detailed, often scathing, but sometimes complimentary. For example, 'The reading and arithmetic are particularly backward;' or 'handwriting needs careful attention and the spelling is weak;' and 'Grammar was a total failure. The pupils did not shew [sic] the slightest evidence of having been prepared.' However, one year following several changes of teacher and of premises, the Inspector sympathetically remarked that 'The instruction is of quite a rudimentary character at present, but there is every reason to hope that it will improve.'
On another occasion, referring to Blackpill, 'This little school has passed a highly satisfactory examination.'
The teachers sometimes came in for their share of criticism 'there was a little harshness in the Teachers' manner towards the children.
Dislike of the Inspection was not evident in the early days when the grant could sometimes match the amount raised locally by the Voluntary school. When the much more rigid style was introduced from 1862, imposing efficient spending and curbing the rise in the Grant, the Inspection became much more disliked. The grants were to be calculated as 12/- per child per year - 4/- depending on its regular attendance and 8/- on its performance in the exams. Failure in any one of the grant-earning subjects would mean the loss of 2/8d from the child's grant. (Infants elicited 10/6d following an Inspection without individual examination, provided that they attended regularly and 'were instructed suitably for their age. However, even their reports were detailed - 'The relative heights of the letters have not been properly taught in writing.'
Not all Inspectors were the villains of the piece however, as many were conscious of a dilemma. Should they refuse a grant, which might per-haps cause the closure of the school or recommend a grant for work, which was patently inferior to the standard required? Perhaps that was the reason behind the phrase recorded in one logbook 'The grant recommended with doubt.'
Blackpill schoolchildren, with their teachers, 1899.
Blackpill School, from Roy Kneath.
On the right, Blackpill teacher, Minnie Shackson -Born Oystermouth 1869 to Samuel and Jane Shackson, gatekeepe,rDarwin Fawr Lodge.
Evidently there were sighs of relief all round once that morning came to an end and when the Inspector had left, a half-holiday was enjoyed by all.
As well as the annual Government Inspection, the Voluntary schools (Oystermouth, Newton and Blackpill Nationals and the British School in Dunns Lane) held their own denominational ones. These however, seem to have been less fraught for all concerned, because these men per-haps, came seeking to bolster their particular denominational establishments rather than criticise them, in order to attract prospective pupils. For example, 'The instruction has been given with care and intelligence and the proficiency of the scholars reflects much credit upon the Master. In contrast, the Board School children endured weekly inspections by members of the Board, perhaps, as they were accountable to the local ratepayers? They tested them in grammar, arithmetic, dictation, spelling, geography and copy-writing. The logbook notes are detailed in the performance of each class, although individual pupils are rarely mentioned.
Victorian children were evidently well used to examinations.
A superior school for the daughters of parents of the wealthier class.
Hannah Riddell's school.
Not all children, however, attended the state, grant aided schools. Some of the growing number of wealthier families in the parish opted for private education for their children. Over time, many small exclusive establishments sprang up and closed. These, of course, charged higher fees for attendance.
Among these were: Mrs. Barree's Academy
Mrs. Bush's Ladies' Seminary at Church Park
Alice Champion's Girls' School, Norton¹
Miss Chapman's Boarding School at Myrtle Lodge, Norton
The Rev. Griffith's School at 'Glyncerrig
The Misses Mary and Ann Habbakaks' private school at Haroldsmoor
Mr. Ivey's Commercial Boarding School at Zion House
Miss Thomas's school at Harold Place, Mumbles Road'
Mr. Charles Williams's School for Young Gentlemen, Norton Lodge Trevartha, a School for Young Ladies, on Overland Road"In 1886-7, the Misses Ann Amelia and Lucy Potts opened a school at 12, Castleton House, moving later moved to Brynheulog on Overland Road. Some of their scholars - Adelaide, Christianus, Victoria and Hugh Taylor, Rose and Gussie Nettell, Ronald Cavill, Reginald Byrde, Gertrude Roskell and Reginald Lane won Certificates from the Tonic Solfa College of London.
Another was the grand sounding Thistleboon Academy at the top of Western Lane, on which the Rev. Thomas Bowen took a lease in the summer of 1841. He taught Greek, Latin, Hebrew and English, writing, arithmetic, algebra and the elements of mathematics, history, geography and the use of the Globes." Edward Butler was the Headmaster in 1851, accompanied by his wife, Harriet, responsible for the domestic arrangements.
Thistleboon House,
colourised by Jeff Stewart.
Mr. John Robert Dawe Colston took over in 1859, by which time, 'Young Gentlemen were Liberally Boarded, Parentally Treated and Expeditiously Qualified for the Learned Professions, the Counting Houses of the Merchants and prepared for the University Examinations.
Later known as Thistleboon House, it was in the charge of R. C. Christian, who offered 'Careful moral, religious training and the inculcation of gentlemanly habits and manners. By 1881, Morgan Newman" had taken over, followed, in 1890, by the Rev. William Moody and by the Rev. F. E. Scott in 1893. In 1894, Rev. Scott moved the school to a more modern building in Langland, which he renamed St. Catherine's College and Thistleboon House was to remain empty for several years until taken over as an orphanage.
Between 1877 and 1889, Hannah Riddell ran a school at 1 & 2, Castle-ton House (now the premises of Newton Packed Meals, the Chinese Takeaway). Initially it was advertised as a 'Preparatory Boarding and Day School for young Gentlemen pupils.16 By 1879 there was a resident French Governess and it was an establishment for Young Ladies. The curriculum was gradually extended until by 1885, it included German, art, piano, harp, violin, singing, gymnastics, calisthenics and mathematics and 'numerous certificates had been obtained in competitive examinations.18 Young Ladies are received as day.
Hanna Riddell
These were just some of the many small private establishments which opened and closed during the sixty years of the Victorian era, of which only a few survived for any length of time.
Why was West Cross?
Because Lilliput the Blackpill into the Oyster's mouth.
Anon
When school was out and no jobs were waiting to be done, the children would eagerly make the most of their leisure time. Inkypinky and duck-stone were two games popular with the boys. There were also stones to throw, trees to climb, birds' nests to rob (considered largely acceptable then) marbles, hoop and ball (if they could afford them) tag, leap-frog and pig-in-the-middle. For the girls, there were hopscotch, line games, such as the big ship sails through the alley-alley oh, or circle games, such as, the farmer's in his den or ring a ring o' roses. Also, perhaps using a length of their mothers' old washing line - skipping, with its many traditional rhymes, such as:
two, four, six, eight,
Mary at the cottage gate,
two, four, six, eight,
Eating cherries off a plate.
Of course, this was when they were not required at home to 'mind the baby' or help with the chores. The following rhyme from a school reading book, published in 1871, reinforced the idea of domesticity as their future.
Elder sisters, you may work,
Work and help your mothers,
Darn the stockings, mend the shirts,
father's things and brother's.'
Some liked to take part in concerts such as the event held in the National School, in which Gertrude Meredith played 'Fairy Content;' Ethel Lloyd, 'Fairy Goodwill;' Gertie John, 'Fairy Fun;' with Willie Mack as a news-boy and Rose Cottle as a serving maid.
Until comparatively recently, there were no holidays for the lower classes. Accordingly, the children looked forward to and delighted in the multitude of holy-days, festivals and little treats which came their way. Harvest holidays did not become mandatory until late in the century and several schools did not close even for short periods, when many children were absent helping in the fields. In time, they closed for perhaps a fortnight or sometimes a month. The school logbooks are peppered with references to children's absences for 'social' reasons, as any unusual event tended to colour their existence and school life continued to be, for many, of secondary importance to the goings-on in the locality.
Some children, dressed in their Sunday-best-clothes, pause for a photograph on the 'Roman' bridge at Blackpill.
The Church and Chapels were sources of enjoyment in the com-munity. For example, in the 1850s and 60s, Bethany Baptist Church at West Cross, held open-air tea parties and meetings attended by hundreds of people and on Sundays, farmers and their families, some on horse-back, some in horse-drawn carts, gathered there for services as did many on foot. Holy-days were one reason for time away 'Half holiday as the children wanted to go flower picking prior to Palm Sunday.
Sunday-schools organised 'treats' and with each denomination holding its event on a different afternoon, school was abandoned on several occasions. For example, in 1886, the Board School closed for half-holidays on 15 June 'for the Church School tea'; on 17 June 'for the Wesleyan Sunday-school treat'; and on 9 July 'for the Baptist Sunday-school treat,' sometimes held at Mrs Lewis's home, Beaufort House at West Cross. The children of the Congregationalists often travelled as far as Rhossilli for their outing.
Illustration: Charlotte Medwell
By 1900, there were five Sunday-schools, three Bands of Hope and a Girls' Friendly Society in the Parish. A Church Club for boys was open every night and there were cricket and football clubs and a gym. The Methodist Church proposed that its schoolroom should be used as a boys' reading room on Friday evenings on condition that nothing fostering gambling be permitted.
A Church Society.
The children of the Church Schools at Blackpill and Newton appear to have benefited from the generosity and hospitality of the people of the 'big houses'. For example, Mr. Vivian of Clyne Castle, Mrs. Martin of Fernhill and Mrs. Fry of Llwynderw entertained the youngsters of Blackpill to tea periodically. At Newton, Mrs. Eliza Crawshay hosted the children with an afternoon at Langland 'where they thoroughly enjoyed themselves and Mrs. Mainwaring invited 'twenty of the most attentive girls to take tea at her home.' In January 1886, 'Captain Holme and his family invited all the village children to tea in the school-room, where the ladies had decorated a Christmas tree, which was heavily laden with presents. About 120 attended and each received a gift, the little ones also receiving an orange and a packet of sweets.' On another occasion there was a treat at Caswel [sic] with racing, jumping etc. Got back at 9.00 p.m. The Oddfellows' and Forresters' Societies held walks, so 'only a few present at school' and 'The children were let out at 3.20 there being a yacht race in the bay.'
Many places held fairs and Oystermouth was no exception with its annual Oyster fair on 1 September. There was donkey racing and sack racing. In the sea there were diving and swimming contests, punt races and climbing a greasy pole. There would be sideshows and locals would sell their wares on the shoreline. Later a regatta was held on this date and perhaps, replaced the fair. In June 1880, the Cambrian reported a display of aquatic sports with races, a duck hunt and a 'girls' Boat Race', which was won by Ellen Weborn [sic] with Mary Jenkins coming in second. In the evening Sir William Clayton distributed a pound's worth of pennies to the children gathered beneath the window of the Mermaid Hotel."
The annual ploughing competitions were much anticipated by the boys and many took time off to attend. These were held at different locations around Gower and in 1900, it was the turn of Richard Woolacott to host the festivities on his farm at Thistleboon. That year, the "boys" class competition was won by W. Davies, aged 14, 'whose ploughing skill was much admired for one so young. At Blackpill, the children must have enjoyed an event, which, unbeknown to them, was history in the making, namely watching local men pull down the turnpike gate in the hamlet, following the abolition of tolls.
If they were lucky enough, the children might be able to buy Little Folks, a Magazine for youngsters, which cost 6d per month.
Mumbles Pier.
Sometimes, events outside the locality were cause for celebration, as was the case at the peace celebrations following the Crimean War when the schools closed for the day. On 10 March 1863, when Edward, Prince of Wales married Princess Alexandra of Denmark, the occasion was marked by the laying of a foundation stone for a communal drinking fountain which would 'confer a great and permanent benefit' on the area. This remains to this day, in situ near the bottom of Western Lane. All the houses and boats in the bay were decked out with flags and bunting and the 700 children of the parish were treated to tea at the British and National schools and were later entertained with games and races on the open fields below the Castle. Thirty years later, the marriage of Prince George to Princess Mary of Teck was similarly celebrated and the beautiful summer's day culminated in a spectacular fireworks display. In October 1881, during the visit to the area of Prince Alfred, the Duke of Edinburgh, Mr. Dixon, a local Gentleman, kindly gave the Sunday-school children a treat by taking them on an excursion free of charge and allowing them to see the Royal procession returning to Singleton.
The year was also punctuated by customs and ceremonies from wassailing on the 12th day of Christmas, St. David's Day, Palm Sunday,
The 'Cutting', through from Southend to Bracelet Bay. This major feat was undertaken to commemorate the Queen's Golden Jubilee.
May Day and Whitsun, the Oyster fair through to the harvest and The Horse's Head at Christmas, which all added flavour and excitement to the children's lives.
Nevertheless, the highlight of all the holidays must have been the two Jubilee celebrations for the 50th and 60th anniversaries of Queen Victoria's accession. The village celebrated the first by a grand improvement scheme, under the direction of James Dickson, of a foreshore promenade and a new road cut through the hill to Bracelet Bay. The children enjoyed a jubilee tea. Ten years later, the diamond jubilee was marked by the Oystermouth Urban District Council setting aside £45 for 'giving a tea and distributing Jubilee medals, brooches or suspenders, to all those under 14 years of age.' After tea in their various schools, the children met near the Castleton schools, formed a procession and marched, accompanied by the Mumbles Brass Band to Mr. Collins's field, loaned for the purpose of 'recreation,' where they enjoyed the afternoon with games. Additionally, all those 73 villagers in receipt of parish relief, received 2/-.
By 1900, with patriotism almost at its height, the schools celebrated the Boer War achievements with relish. For example, Blackpill children had a full day-off to celebrate the relief of Ladysmith and in May, 'a holiday was granted for the relief of Mafeking, for rejoicing.' In a little comical twist, however, 'the news of the relief of Mafeking not being officially confirmed until later on Friday night, at the request of several parents, another holiday was given today.'
Thus, there were many events and pastimes in which the children were able to take part with great enjoyment and which they would surely savour and remember for many a year.
A Diamond Jubilee commemorative biscuit tin.
It is justly concluded that if their school career can help make children more orderly, obedient and truthful, it has accomplished no mean result.
HMI Binns, Report of the Committee of Council on Education for 1865, p. 64.
The laws made in Parliament laid down the requirements of Government as far as the curriculum, school fees and discipline, but the practical difficulties experienced by the ordinary working family were virtually ignored by officialdom. This story has therefore set out to reveal a little of the nature of childhood in our village in those Days before Yesterday, although as Thomas Hardy once said 'The more written, the more seems to remain to be written.'
As we have seen, the locality had undergone radical changes during the sixty years of the Victorian era. The population of the parish had increased considerably, some working in Swansea, some in the local area. Jobs had changed from being predominantly oyster-dredging or quarrying to shop-keeping and tourism with its attendant occupations. Public Health measures had been implemented making for a healthier locality and major new housing had been constructed.
A Labour Certificate
So too the lives of the youngsters had changed. Now, their education was compulsory and many more were encouraged to attend regularly, although as yet, not all. Following the Welsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889, a few children were considered suitable to 'try the scholar-ship.' If successful and their parents willing and able to keep them in school, they could continue their education at the Municipal Secondary Schools of Swansea and Gowerton.
For the rest, well, they remained at school until the age of ten or twelve, when with a basic elementary education under their belts and a 'labour' certificate in their hands, they left school to find work. Consequently, many a latent talent, either academic or artistic, possibly lay undiscovered or unrecognised, as family finances could not stretch to foster it. For some boys their destiny might, if they were lucky, be an apprenticeship into a 'trade' and for the girls, perhaps a job 'in service.' for a few years before marriage.
Public Instruction should be the first object of Government.
Napoleon Bonaparte.
The theme of my recent Dissertation was an exploration of the various reasons for the non-attendance at school of the Victorian children of Pembrokeshire. As I delved deeper, I realized that the entire experience of school-life at that time opened up a myriad experiences and stories which, I felt needed to be told. Here, then, was a subject for further research, which I could undertake concerning the area, which constituted the old Parish of Oystermouth. Having touched on the many snippets noted in the logbooks, and subsequently illustrated throughout this book, it still remains necessary to chart the background to the whole episode. Thus we transfer from the lives of the ordinary people of Oyster-mouth to the makers of policy, people largely remote from them by class as well as geography, and the Halls of Westminster.
What follows therefore, is a brief description of the debates and issues, which encapsulated the question of education for the masses and which directed the development of elementary schooling in the nineteenth century. Until then, only the children of the rich had received any degree of regular education whereas for the remainder its availability was haphazard, uncertain, patchy or non-existent, as there was no national or standard provision. Early in the century two Voluntary Societies had been formed. Firstly, Joseph Lancaster, a Quaker, introduced his British system of education in 1805, later to become known as the British and Foreign Schools Society, which was supported by Nonconformists. The second was the National Society for the Promotion of the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church, founded in 1811. Its stated aims were 'to accustom the children of the lower orders to habits of cleanliness, order and subordination' and 'not to raise them above their condition in life.'
With increasing industrialization and consequent movement of people towards jobs in the towns, changes became necessary in political, educational and public health fields. The Reports of the Poor Law Commissioners repeatedly referred to the need for education for all, but many people worried that if this was granted there would be unrest. However, this fear was gradually surpassed by a greater one, that of either allowing the children to remain ignorant or of letting the control of their education fall into dangerous hands. Conversely, the radical weekly Reynold's News- paper, argued that the real threat to the propertied classes was not that of an uneducated electorate, but of an educated one.
It was no coincidence that in 1832, following the first Reform Act and its somewhat extended, yet still limited franchise, the by now, rather more tolerant Government decided to go for limited change and become involved in the education of the lower classes. It was decided that, 'the House should . . consider the means of establishing a system of national education. Thus the first Government grant 'for the purposes of education,' was made and, at £20,000 for the whole of England and Wales, was £30,000 less than that deemed necessary for refitting the Royal stables at Windsor! Although the annual amount gradually increased, by the late 1850s, a great deal of money was being spent, yet many children were continuing to leave school virtually illiterate.' The Newcastle Commission was set up to look at the situation primarily in England and it was as a result of this research that Robert Lowe introduced the Revised Code for England and Wales, to monitor attendance, check progress and verify the spending of the Grant money. The new grant, offered in schools found satisfactory by HMIs, would give 4/- per scholar for those who had attended more than 200 times, and 8/- for those over six years of age who passed the examination in the 3 Rs. Those under six would attract 10/6d, subject to a report by HMIs that 'such children are instructed suitably for their age . . . and . . . not to interfere with the instruction of the older children.' Thus, teachers' incomes became dependent on children's attendance as well as their proficiency. The Revised Code, designed for more efficient teaching, in reality led to the neglect of anything beyond the elementary work needed to get the children through their annual examinations. In many places there were protests with letters galore printed in the local press. One such, in defence of the Teachers, was received by The Cambrian News from 'Alpha', who stated that we are opposed to a system which pays a man for results which are affected . . . by circumstances beyond his control. Others disagreed saying: 'Under the old system, the duller children had gone to the wall in favour of the more interesting work of carrying on the elder and cleverer ones in their more advanced subjects.' Now, all the children received attention, as all the children had to gain passes in the annual examination.
However, by 1869, a new approach was thought necessary, with compulsory attendance coming to be seen by some as the only way forward. The 1870 Education Act laid down that elementary schools were to be built in all districts 'not adequately served by the religious bodies.' W. E. Forster, the architect of the Act was certain that children could not be adequately educated unless they attended school regularly, rather than two or three days a week or a few weeks in the year, which was the routine for many. In his view, there should be both compulsory attendance and provision of schools.
Incomprehensible to us perhaps, but there were many vested views and interests at work in the debate over the introduction of compulsory schooling. Opinions generally divided into three main camps - those in favour of direct compulsion, i.e. legally enforceable, those who preferred indirect compulsion, i.e. incentives (such as making it a condition of out-relief for the parents) and those whose interests lay with opposition to any compulsion at all.
The Newcastle Commission had found that any attempt to replace an independent system of education with a Government-controlled com- pulsory system, would raise objections on the religious front, as it was felt that if control passed to Parliament, the denominations would have less influence on the education of the community. Political objections centred on the issue of who would pay for the implementation. Some MPs were opposed, as they believed it was an insult to parents to use the law to compel them to comply. Other MPs and some landowners were satisfied with things as they were, because they feared that too much education would make the poorer classes discontented with their lot. In general, the better-off farmers in England too opposed any compulsory education. Mr. Kebbel, a Tory MP, claimed to offer an objective survey in his article The Agricultural Labourer, published in 1870. However, it was actually a defence of the status quo from the farmers' viewpoint in that: 'Education, for the labourers' child was a luxury, nice but not indispensable employers need labour and parents need children's earnings.'
Consequently, as a form of compromise, the 1870 Education Act brought in School Boards with power 'to frame byelaws for compulsory attendance of all children from five to twelve within their district. Thus, between 1870 and 1880 an anomalous situation existed, whereby those who attended Board Schools did so compulsorily (if local byelaws had been implemented) while those who attended denominational schools did so voluntarily. The Sandon Education Act of 1876, gave authority to every district to set up school attendance committees, which would have compulsory powers to secure regular attendance for those areas not covered by a Board. This, it was hoped, it would lead to a large increase in the numbers of scholars, reported the School Guardian.
However, it was only following yet another Act of Parliament in 1880, that attendance became mandatory. By the end of the year, 71.6% of the population of England and Wales was covered by byelaws and in mid- January 1881, the introduction of new regulations covered the rest, compelling the attendance of children between five and thirteen and prescribing the Vth standard for total exemption and the IIIrd for partial exemption. In 1891, the Elementary Education Act made possible free education. A Government grant of 10/- a year was to be paid for each pupil and fees were either to be reduced by that amount or abolished altogether. In 1893, the minimum school leaving age was raised to eleven and in 1899, to twelve. In 1897, 'payments by results' came to an end and in 1902 the Balfour Education Act abolished the Boards and replaced them with Local Education Authorities.
There was clearly immense progress on the political, public health and education fronts during the Victorian era. At the turn of the century a new Edwardian era began, a new social order was in its infancy and the onset of the welfare state only a few years away. Yet, even now one hundred years later, the field of education remains a political 'hot potato,' with the prospect of 'performance related pay' again on the cards - surely a euphemism for 'payments by results.'
The more things change, the more they remain the same.
I have had playmates, I have had companions
In my days of childhood, in my joyful school-days;
All, all are gone, the old familiar faces.
I have been laughing, I have been carousing,
Drinking late, sitting late, with my bosom cronies;
All, all are gone, the old familiar faces.
I loved a love once, fairest among women:
Closed are her doors on me, I must not face her
All, all are gone, the old familiar faces.
I have a friend, a kinder friend has no man:
Like an ingrate, I left my friend abruptly;
Left him, to muse on the old familiar faces.
Ghost-like I paced round the haunts of my childhood;
Earth seem'd a desert I was bound to traverse,
Seeking to find the old familiar faces.
Friend of my bosom, thou more than a brother,
Why wert not thou born in my father's dwelling?
So we might talk of the old familiar faces,
How some they have died, and some they have left me,
And some are taken from me; all are departed;
All, all are gone, the old familiar faces.
Charles Lamb
PRIMARY SOURCES
(a) SCHOOL LOGBOOKS
Blackpill National School, 1879-1901.
Newton National School, 1865-1901.
Oystermouth National School, 1865-1901.
Oystermouth Board School, 1878-1901.
(b) NEWSPAPERS AND JOURNALS
All Saints' Church Parish Magazine.
The Cambrian News.
The Carmarthen Journal.
The School Guardian.
The Mumbles Chronicle and Gower Advertiser.
The Methodist Times.
(c) LOCAL RECORDS
Minutes of the Oystermouth Local Board Meetings.
Minutes of the Management Committee of the National Schools.
Parish Records.
(d) STREET DIRECTORIES
Butcher's Directory, 1875.
Kelly's Directory, 1891.
Mathews' Directory, 1830.
Pearce's Directory, 1854.
Worrall's Directory, 1875.
(e) CENSUS RECORDS 1801-1901
(f) PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS.
Reports of the Committee of Council on Education, 1847 and 1876-7.
Returns for England and Wales of the number of children attending school known to be working for wages PP 1899, vol. LXXV.
HC 1895 xliii.
SECONDARY SOURCES
Boyd, J., Hannah Riddell: An Englishwoman in Japan (Japan, 1996).
Gabb, G., The Story of the Village of Mumbles (Cowbridge, 1986).
Goldstrom, J. M., Education: Elementary Education, 1780-1900 (London, 1972).
Horn, P., Education in Rural England, 1800-1914 (Dublin, 1978).
Horn, P., Labouring Life in the Victorian Countryside (Dublin, 1976).
Horn, P., The Victorian Country Child (Stroud, 1997)
Hurt, J. S., Elementary Schooling and the Working Classes, 1860-1918 (Thetford, 1979).
Maclure, S., Educational Documents: England and Wales, 1816 to the Present Day (London, 1973).
Palgrave, F. T., The Golden Treasury (London, 1954).
Richards, D. and Hunt, J. W., An Illustrated History of Modern Britain, 1783-1980 (Harlow, 1989).
Roberts K., Feet in Chains (Cardiff, 1977).
Souden, D., The Victorian Village (London, 1995).
Sturt, M., The Education of the People (London, 1970).
Sutherland, G., Policy Making in Elementary Education, 1870-1895 (Oxford, 1973).
Thomas, N., The Mumbles: Past and Present (Llandysul, 1978).
Wardle, D., English Popular Education, 1780-1975 (Cambridge, 1977).
ARTICLES
Cope, W., "Thistleboon House School,' Gower, XLVI.
Cummings, R., 'The logbooks of a Rhondda School', Glamorgan Historian XI, 1975.
Hart, R., 'The Crawshays of Langland' Gower, XLV.
Jones, G. E., 'Pembrokeshire Education' in D. W. Howell (ed) Modern Pem-brokeshire, 1815-1974. Pembrokeshire County History IV (Haverfordwest, 1993).
Warren, C. H., The Good Life: An Anthology of Working Life in the Country (London, 1946).
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