How to distinguish common Japanese particles
This is the biggest one.
Marks the topic.
It tells you what the sentence is about.
私は学生です。
As for me, I am a student.
日本は面白いです。
Japan is interesting.
Marks the subject.
It points out who or what does the action, or what exists.
猫がいる。
There is a cat.
田中さんが来た。
Tanaka came.
は = “speaking of…”
が = “this is the one that…”
私は日本語を勉強しています。
As for me, I study Japanese.
私が日本語を勉強しています。
I am the one studying Japanese.
So が often sounds more specific or contrastive.
Marks the direct object.
パンを食べる。
Eat bread.
本を読む。
Read a book.
Marks the subject.
犬が走る。
The dog runs.
With potential forms, Japanese often uses が instead of を.
日本語が話せる。
Can speak Japanese.
ピアノが弾ける。
Can play the piano.
Not:
日本語を話せる
This may appear in casual speech, but が is the classic textbook pattern.
Both can mark direction.
Marks the destination clearly.
学校に行く。
Go to school.
Marks the direction toward something.
学校へ行く。
Go toward school.
In many cases, they are similar.
But:
に = destination / arrival point
へ = direction / heading toward
In daily conversation, に is more common.
Very important.
Used for:
destination
existence
time
result of change
Examples:
学校に行く。
Go to school.
机の上に本がある。
There is a book on the desk.
3時に会う。
Meet at 3 o’clock.
医者になる。
Become a doctor.
Used for:
place of action
means/tool
cause
Examples:
学校で勉強する。
Study at school.
バスで行く。
Go by bus.
風邪で休む。
Be absent because of a cold.
に = point / destination / state
で = place where action happens
Compare:
学校に行く。
Go to school.
学校で勉強する。
Study at school.
Can mark:
target of giving
indirect object
one-way action toward someone
先生に本をあげる。
Give a book to the teacher.
Can mark:
with
and
quotation
mutual action partner
先生と話す。
Talk with the teacher.
友だちと行く。
Go with a friend.
先生に話す。
Speak to the teacher.
先生と話す。
Speak with the teacher.
So:
に = toward
と = together / mutual
Place where an action happens.
公園で遊ぶ。
Play in the park.
Direct object, but also route/passing space with movement verbs.
公園を歩く。
Walk through the park.
橋を渡る。
Cross the bridge.
This confuses many learners.
公園で遊ぶ
The park is where the action happens.
公園を歩く
The park is the space you move through.
Both can mean “because.”
More direct, personal, stronger.
雨だから、行かない。
Because it’s raining, I’m not going.
Softer, more explanatory, more polite.
雨なので、行きません。
Because it is raining, I will not go.
から = stronger / casual / assertive
ので = softer / gentler / polite
Means “also.”
私も行きます。
I will go too.
Marks the topic.
私は行きます。
As for me, I will go.
田中さんは行きます。私も行きます。
Tanaka will go. I will go too.
私は行きますが、弟は行きません。
I will go, but my younger brother will not.
So も adds sameness; は can create contrast.
Complete listing: A and B
りんごとみかん
apples and oranges
Incomplete listing: A and B and so on
りんごやみかん
apples, oranges, and so on
So:
と = complete list
や = examples, not full list
Both relate to “only,” but they work differently.
Just / only
水だけ飲みます。
I drink only water.
Nothing but / only, always with negative
水しか飲みません。
I drink nothing but water.
だけ = neutral
しか〜ない = stronger sense of limitation
Until
5時まで勉強する。
Study until 5.
By / before a deadline
5時までに来てください。
Please come by 5.
So:
まで = until that time
までに = no later than that time
About / approximately
30分ぐらい待った。
I waited about 30 minutes.
About, but also often used in comparisons
30分ほど待ちました。
I waited about 30 minutes.
彼ほど背が高くない。
Not as tall as him.
So:
くらい / ぐらい = casual “about”
ほど = often slightly more formal; also comparison
These are sentence-ending particles.
Gives information / emphasis
今日は休みですよ。
It’s a holiday today, you know.
Seeks agreement / shared feeling
今日は寒いですね。
It’s cold today, isn’t it?
きれいですよ。
It’s beautiful.
きれいですね。
It’s beautiful, isn’t it?