Rice in India: The Grain that Helped Shape a Nation

Introduction - Aarambha आरम्भ

History of Rice in India - Itihasa इतिहास

History of Agriculture

History of Consumption & How it Relates to Culture

Rice Agriculture & Cultivation - Bhāvanā भावना

Contemporary Agriculture

Effect of Rice Agriculture on Modern Day India

Rice in Indian Cuisine - Annapurna अन्नपूर्ण

Common Indian Rice Dishes

Eating & Dining Practices

Rice in Hinduism - Akshata अक्षत

Rice in Hindu Prayer & Mythology

Rice in Hindu Ceremonies

Conclusion - Mokṣa मोक्ष

"I had never really given it [rice] much thought, I grew up eating it and using it in poojas or at the temple. I knew my ancestors valued it, my Dada and his Dada before that they always had a big bowl of khichdi or daal bhat [rice dishes] before going to the farm. It sustained us and nourished us and it continues to do so. Indeed, rice is very important to the Indian people." - Bhikabhai Patel

Introduction - Aarambha आरम्भ

Rice…what does it mean to us? For some it means little more than something we eat, for the Indian people - rice is highly symbolic and their history of rice cultivation and consumption has certainly shaped more than their cuisine. India is a country in which, historically, what is consumed/eaten reflects a lot of significance in terms of spirituality and culture, as is clear from the Journal of Ethnic Foods article, "Traditional and Ayurvedic Foods of Indian Origin." From Ayurvedic medicine, the Vedas, and more, until now - rice has been a staple crop that shaped their culture in more ways than one. As only one of many Asian countries in which the historic practice of rice cultivation has impacted their culture, India acts as a case study to examine how a historic crop can work to shape the countries they are native to. This case study can then examine ways in which food culture and society are deeply related and how what we eat and grow can also become an integral part of our cultural practices; as examined by Alejandro Colás. Rice has agricultural roots in India from around 2000 B.C. and it has no doubt become an integral part of their food culture; however, it has not only influenced what they eat but has significantly impacted their culture; from the agricultural practices, to the cuisines, to one of the main religions - rice has certainly helped shape the nation.

History of Rice in India - Itihasa इतिहास

History of Agriculture

The historic roots of rice can be traced back to China in 4000 B.C. and then to India around 2000 B.C. specifically in the Northeast region of India including Nepal (See Figure 1.1). The type of rice that could be found in these regions was Oryaza indica (Bates 1). This continues to be the most common variety of rice found throughout India, though there are several varieties, including some rare ones (See Figure 1.2). Though rice cultivation began in the Northeast, where perennial wild rice can still be found, it quickly spread throughout India through the waterways and rivers, including the very important River Ganges. Water is a crucial component of rice agriculture and evidence of early Mesolithic sites can be found along several banks around this river and connecting lakes (Bates 5). The most common rice exported from India today, and which was present in these historic roots is basmati rice, a type of long-grain aromatic rice. As examined in the Journal of Cereal Research’s article “History and Folklore of Basmati Rice,” this type of rice has been involved in the development of Indian culture for many years - from being used in folklore as well as cultivation being a method of teaching - it has become an integral part of examining Indian culture. Historically, rice farming required a very hands-on approach, at least when it came to harvests. Many people would have to work the fields in order to extract the rice paddies which were known as vrihi in Sanskrit. In rice farming villages, this made for a community-based agriculture where men, women, and even children would often work.

History of Consumption & How it Relates to Culture

Since it would yield a lot, rice was a staple in traditional Indian cooking, going back to Ayurvedic recipes which emphasized nourishment and health using ingredients like lentils, rice, beans, and herbs (See Figure 1.3). It is no wonder then, that rice became a symbol in Indian culture and religion since even the concept of Ayurvedic recipes comes from religious and spiritual concepts of ancient India, the Vedic texts. Additionally, as I will go on to examine in more detail later - rice as an offering was also mentioned in Vedic text (Gonda, Rice and Barley Offerings in the Vedas). Along with Vedas, rice is also referenced in Hindu mythology like the Ramayana and Mahabaratha (though it is important to note that scholar Wendy Doniger is skeptical about these two texts as they pertain to Indian religion since she believes them to be a more Colonized consideration in Indian history).

(Figure 1.1; Agro-Ecological Zones of India)

(Figure 1.2; Rare Rice Map of India)

(Figure 1.3; Image of Traditional Ayurvedic Ingredients)

(Figure 2.1; Graphic of Major Crops by Indian Region)

(Figure 2.2; A simplified diagram of the main evolutionary pathways to domesticated Asian rice, with selected key mutations indicated, differentiating wild-type dominant form with all capital letters and domesticated type recessive alleles with lowercase letters. Mutations: sh4,non-shattering; Prog1, erect growth; rc, white grain pericarp; sw5, wider grains; qsh1, further non-shattering; wxy, waxy/glutinous rice (low amylase); WW, wild gene pool; dd, domesticated gene pool; cult., cultivated; X, major hybridization event; crossed arrows indicate continued gene flow (introgression); Kingwell-Banham, 2019).

(Figure 2.3; Graphic of the World's Biggest Rice Producers)

Rice Agriculture & Cultivation - Bhāvanā भावना

Contemporary Agriculture

Rice is still commonly grown throughout India and has in fact spread throughout the Southern Hemisphere as well, due to the ever-adapting agricultural practices (See Figure 2.1). As explored in Jennifer Bates’ article concerning Indian rice domestication, through the very complex evolutionary pathways of rice cultivation (See Figure 2.2) even drier countries like Gujurat, where rice is not native to, have seen some mutations of rice. These new developments in rice agriculture have also led to the method of growing change. While it still is often grown in villages or small cities that put their harvest back into their community, the larger manufacturers are taking advantage of newer technology that results in rice being a less interdependent crop (requiring smaller amounts of labor). This has led to a decrease in the importance of agrarian communities within India, however, they have not died off completely, and with over 650,000 villages in India, that eradication is nowhere in sight.

Effect of Rice Agriculture on Modern Day India

In village life rice growing has had the continued effect of emphasizing the role of community and established agrarian societies, however, rice domestication and technological evolution within agriculture have had the opposite effect. But being the world's second-largest producer of rice and largest exporter (See Figures 2.3 & 2.4) does not come without corporatization: In larger cities like Ahmedabad or Hyderabad, corporations responsible for pushing the export of rice from India to other countries have set up shop and expect high output from their rice mills. The state of Haryana alone contributes to about 60% of all Indian rice exports each year, having a total of 690 rice mills comprised of ‘husky mills’ and ‘automatic mills.’ Husky mills, which resemble more of a traditional style of rice production, still require more hands-on processes and are responsible for the creation of many jobs compared to automatic mills. So the case could still be made that in the rural areas (with lots of land) where the crop is grown, agrarian culture is very much alive despite the shifting culture of individualism in the urban (city) settings where rice export from India is corporatized.

(Figure 2.4; Graphic of the Major Rice Exporting Countries)

"I make rice every day. In khichdi or for daal bhat or we eat it with other things. We don't eat any meat in Gujurati food so we [have] to make sure we get the nourishment from other food [groups]... When I was young all the women we would carry the water on our heads all the way from the well to use to make rice for the whole village. Now I make [it] for you and your brothers, your parents - all of us." - Leela Patel

Rice in Indian Cuisine - Annapurna अन्नपूर्ण

Common Indian Rice Dishes

It is not only through rice growing that we can learn a lot about how India’s culture has been shaped but also when examining the common rice dishes, we can find more evidence of rice’s impact on the community values of Indian village life. As apparent through the Journal of Ethnic Foods article, “Traditional and Ayurvedic Foods of Indian Origin,” Indian cuisines that utilize rice as an ingredient go back many centuries and have a lot of significance and purpose. Ayurveda is historically a system of thinking about medicine and health derived from the oldest Hindu texts, the Vedas. Ayurveda extends to examining how health is also impacted by our consumption (Sarkar, Lohith, et. Al). These traditional foods are still consumed today, especially in vegetarian-majority states [because yes, it is a myth that the entire country is majority vegetarian] as Gujarat and Rajasthan the need for nutrient-dense and sustainable meals like the ones found in traditional ayurvedic cuisines has led to the creation of many rice-forward meals. Indian traditional foods, like the ones I will examine shortly, hold significance in the sense that they are functional and provide ‘body-healing’ components; in other words, for the Indian people there is a deep interrelationship between what they eat and how they feel (physically and spiritually) (Sarkar, Lohith, et. Al). For this reason, traditional Indian cuisines tend to combine rice (as a carb source) with a plant-based protein source and plenty of vegetables and healthy spices i.e. turmeric. Let's examine a few:

Khichdi (also spelled Kichadi) is a rice dish made by combining rice with moong dal (lentils) as well as tomatoes and a variety of spices including turmeric and mustard seed (both known to be beneficial to the digestive system); you could optionally make this dish more nutritious by adding a mix of vegetables [though when younger folks encounter an older “Ma” or Indian grandma she’ll likely make it plain so it is more palatable]. (Figure 3.1)
Dal Bhat is a rice dish eaten by Indian people from childhood until their old age. Similar to khichdi, dal bhat consists of a sort of lentil stew comprised of moong dal, tomatoes, veggies, and spices, and has the freedom for some creative additions. This lentil stew known as the ‘dal’ is eaten in combination with rice or ‘bhat’ for a filling and nutritious meal. (Figure 3.2)
Idli is another popular vegetarian rice dish and is a great example of the endless possibilities of rice as it incorporates rice more uniquely. Idli are fermented ‘rice cakes’ that are made by blending rice and lentils until smooth and allowing the mixture to ferment before steaming them. This is typically served with Sambar (very similar to dal) as well as coconut chutney [or whatever your favorite type]. (Figure 3.3)

Eating & Dining Practices

Through works like Colás’ book regarding food as it relates to modern social theory it has become clear that not only are cultural cuisines indicative of larger societal ideas but also how these cuisines are consumed that is indicative of how food shapes culture. In fact, in Indian culture, how food is eaten, especially within villages like the aforementioned rice-growing villages, the way of eating is reflective of their agrarian culture. Many of the common rice dishes lend themselves well to a big yield; many women will often work together to cook large quantities of these dishes (See Figure 3.4) since food is often served in a community style, as exemplified by the concept of ‘temple food’ throughout India (See figure 3.5). Additionally, the highly spiritual act of nourishment through food in India is clear through their concepts of dining etiquette. In India, food is commonly eaten with the hands (no utensils), and though it differs throughout the different regions of India, eating with one hand has very specific rules i.e. hands must always be clean/freshly washed, you eat with your left hand (regardless of which hand is dominant), and in certain regions using your hands to eat up to particular knuckles can be representative of setting i.e. up to the first knuckle in a more formal setting, up to the second knuckle in more casual (at-home) setting. This deeply spiritual and cultural relationship between food, mind, body, and soul in India is something that makes studying their food culture vastly interesting and the study does not end there.

(Figure 3.1; Image of Khichdi)

(Figure 3.2; Image of Dal Bhat)

(Figure 3.3; Image of Idli Plate with Sambar and Chutney)

(Figure 3.4; Image of Women Group Cooking in India)

(Figure 3.5; Image of People Enjoying Temple Food in India)

(Figure 4.1, Image of my Puja book from Hindu Camp referencing the symbolism of items within the ceremony; see the 6th word for Akshata meaning)

(Figure 4.2; Image of Groom Showering Bride with Rice during Indian Wedding Ceremony)

(Figure 4.3; Image of Rice Rangoli - a color powder mixed with rice made into design)

(Figure 4.4; Image of Elders Blessing a Child in a Home Ceremony)

(Figure 4.5; Image of Priest and Family Performing a Samskara ritual for a baby)

(Figure 4.4; Image of Hindu Priests Preparing Rice Balls for a Death Ceremony)

Rice in Hinduism - Akshata अक्षत

Rice in Hindu Prayer & Mythology

In addition to being a staple food, rice is also highly symbolic within Indian religion and spirituality. It is used in prayers (Pujas a.k.a. Poojas) as an offering to represent prosperity and abundance (See Figure 4.1). Rice has a long history in various Hindu texts such as the Vedas, the Bhagavad Gita, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata, and additionally has been referenced in Rajastani tales. To take an example from one of these, the Rajasthani tales detail how grain is a highly desired and paradigmatic food with some mentioning rice more specifically (Gold, 151). Gold goes on to examine how grain (in most parts of India this ‘grain’ is represented by rice) is always brought when dealing with prayer, it is an asking grain, an offering, and one that is highly valued. During prayer, rice is often used in conjunction with a red powder or a yellow powder in some places. Prayer rice or ‘akshata’ is a specific type of uncooked and unbroken rice that the Indian people see as a symbol of purity as well but can also be unhusked rice (paddy), or even rice flour. Each type denotes different ideas in terms of ceremonial or prayer value; for example, in most everyday pujas, they use unbroken uncooked rice. Due to the extensive history of rice within Hindu texts as well, the use of rice in prayer and ceremonies is not a practice of recent origin but rather dates back to the Vedic period (Ahuja, Subhash & Ahuja, Uma) which helps emphasize how the importance of rice developed within India through the Vedic texts (then resulting in the ayurvedic cuisine and more). Rice goddesses are also present throughout the continent of Asia with India’s being the Goddess Annapurna and although Annapurna is a relatively rare and lesser-known Hindu tradition it connects to the more well-known importance of rice as nourishment and food for the soul (Hamilton 271). Worship of Annapurna comes from centuries-old mythology that details when Goddess Parvati was taught the idea of Maya in Hinduism. Maya is the love of the illusionary or material world (what keeps humans from seeing/understanding the cosmos) and when Parvati was taught of Maya, she rid the world of all material things including food which consequently put all humans in danger. After this, the other Gods/Goddesses wished for and called Goddess Annapurna to earth, begging her for rice thus creating the Hindu value of Annapurna in cuisine and eating for nourishment. Rice is an ever-important crop to the Hindu people as a means of nourishment which has deep roots in their spirituality.

Rice in Hindu Ceremonies

Along with being used in prayer, rice is also utilized as a symbol in many ceremonies throughout India, some religious and some not - such as harvest celebrations (though some could argue there are religious connotations to these celebrations as well). Rice is commonly utilized in wedding ceremonies (See Figure 4.2) and some lesser-known but also common uses also include first feeding rituals or cremation processes. Additionally, rice can be used during the Hindu celebration of Diwali in an art form called rangoli (See Figure 4.3). The book The Art of Rice: Spirit and Sustenance in Asia, recounts several different ceremonies throughout one's life, specifically in Tamil Nadu, India (since ceremonies and traditions can differ from place to place/village to village). We will examine a few categories of these ceremonies and what rice symbolizes in each to see how much meaning the Indian people have derived from this staple grain:

Rice in Ritual and in the Home (See Figure 4.4): As established, many Hindu rituals that involve the use of rice use paddy rice (unhusked) or unbroken/uncooked rice. This is because the cooked rice is regarded as pure and within the home setting is typically used as a blessing, offering, or invocation. Some examples of these home-based rituals include Akshadai [Blessing], Naivedyham [Offering], and Kumbham [Invocation].
Rice in Samskaras (See Figure 4.5): Samskaras are the Hindu life rites and include a variety of different ceremonies all of which include the use of rice as a sacred item. These ceremonies can differ by caste and religion but are blessing ceremonies throughout one's life. Some examples include Prenatal Samskara, Samskara’s of Childhood, and Samskara’s of Education.
Rice in Marriage Rites: The Hindu marriage rites or Kalyanam include the use of rice throughout including the cooking of a fistful of rice by the couple to signify the start of their marriage and the placing of the marriage pendant on a tray of rice symbolizing fertility.
Rice in Death Ceremonies (See Figure 4.6): Only within death ceremonies is cooked rice used as a final feeding. Typically made of multiple ceremonies over the course of several days, death ceremonies are said to ensure smooth passage for one's soul with rice playing a key role in several stages throughout.
Rice in Festivals: With the many festivals that go on throughout India it is no wonder that many of these festivals involve the symbolic use of rice. The food that is offered, sanctified, and then eaten in these festivals always consists of rice placed on paddy, and rice-based sweets are also served.

Rice is an ever-important crop to the Hindu people as a means of nourishment which has deep roots in their spirituality and is often utilized as a symbolic medium in prayers and ceremonies.

Conclusion - Mokṣa मोक्ष

What we eat, how we grow it, and how we consume it mean more to modern cultural theories than we acknowledge. It is very easy to see eating as just a normal part of life, not something we give too much thought or attention to. However, through cases like that of India and its lengthy history of rice agriculture, rice consumption, and the cultural significance of rice - it becomes apparent that food cultures may have deeper implications on how a society or culture develops. For places like India or China, rice is the crop that shaped their nation, for other places or cultures that crop might be different…maybe maize (corn), maybe sugarcane, maybe something else. With over half the world's population living off of rice as a staple food, learning about some of the origins of this versatile crop can give us new meaning to what we eat; in a day and age where life seems to move ever so quickly and there is hardly any time for contemplation or mindful eating, understanding the cultural significance of a food like rice can bring new appreciation for the long history of cultivation and trade that made these crops accessible. And with nearly every country having a unique rice dish (See the Below Images), it is no surprise that rice has shaped all of our experiences with food and perhaps even the culture that food comes from. Maybe sitting down to eat an Indian meal reminds you of times eating with your family or sitting down to eat a hamburger gives you a new appreciation for occasional solitude, whatever it may be - learning about how other cultures produce, consume, or even worship their staple crops can help us find the everyday significance of what we eat and acknowledge the deep history of food culture.