More Than Just Plain Vanilla

Examining the history and cultivation of vanilla with an emphasis on its pre-Columbian uses in Mesoamerican societies

What is Vanilla?

The most popular ice cream flavor in the world, the second most expensive spice on the international market, and one of the globe’s most labor-intensive crops– vanilla does it all. This cherished spice is derived from the pods of the vanilla orchid and is renowned for its sweet, aromatic qualities, making it a staple in culinary and aromatic applications worldwide. It is native to Mesoamerica where it was revered by different indigenous peoples across many centuries, and has since become an indispensable commodity.

What is Vanilla...Botanically Speaking?

The most prized part of the vanilla plant is its fruit which is a slender, elongated pod filled with tiny seeds. These seeds are commonly referred to as "beans", which can be especially deceiving since the pods they come in resemble a leguminous pod. Rest assured that the secret touch to your homemade cookies is not actual bean extract– Vanilla is a genus in the Orchidaceae family, making it a cousin of the popular house plant. There are around 110 recognized species of vanilla orchids within the Vanilla genus, but only some contain enough vanillin (the compound chiefly responsible for vanilla's flavor and aroma– more on that later) to make them practical for cultivation.

How Did it Come to Be?

Natural distribution of vanilla juxtaposed with regions where it was introduced as a commodity crop. (kew.org)

Vanilla was introduced to the Old World during the Columbian Exchange when Hernán Cortés encountered it in Mesoamerica during the early 16th century. Initially prized for its fragrance rather than its flavor, vanilla gained popularity in Europe as a luxury ingredient. However, the plant struggled to thrive outside its native habitat due to the absence of its natural pollinator(s). It wasn't until the mid-19th century when a method of hand-pollination was developed that vanilla cultivation took off in regions like Madagascar, now the world's largest producer.

A Crash Course in Vanilla Cultivars

V. planifolia

Bourbon and Mexican Vanillas

Depending on its region of harvest, this species is categorized as either Bourbon or Mexican vanilla. It is native to a broad geographical area ranging from southern Mexico to northern Brazil and still cultivated within its native regions.

For it to be considered Bourbon, it must be grown on one of the Indian Ocean islands. Madagascar and Réunion (historically known as Île Bourbon, hence the name) are some of the best-known ones. This species overwhelmingly contributes to global vanilla production at around upwards of 85%.

V. tahitensis

Tahitian Vanilla

This species is actually a hybrid of V. planifolia and a lesser-known species, V. odorata; it is unknown whether the hybridization occurred naturally or via human intervention. It originated in Guatemala but is now grown across French Polynesia.

Once a principal export of the region, export and production has now dwindled and V. tahitensis makes only makes up less than 1% of global vanilla production. Its scent lends it well to use in fragrances, which is the industry in which much of the produced Tahitian vanilla is used.

V. pompona

West Indian Vanilla

Apparently, this cultivar is so special that it received its own website. According to this site, it is the rarest and largest vanilla in the world. It thrives in the Amazon, which covers the regions where it is predominantly cultivated, but can be found in southern Mexico as well.

Because of its rarity, there is relatively little ultra-detailed information about it available. However, it is a little bit of a star in its own right– it is one of the only cultivars on which a pollinator was decisively identified. Otherwise, surprisingly little is known about the identities of Vanilla's natural pollinators.

A Bit About Vanillin

To clarify, vanillin is the primary compound responsible for the flavor and aroma of vanilla. In order to "activate" it, the vanilla pods must go through a curing process. In green (fresh and unprocessed) vanilla pods, vanillin is present solely in its conjugated form. What this means is that the vanillin molecules are bound to other compounds within the pod. In this conjugated state, vanillin is not readily perceived by the human senses, so the green pods are not sensed as vanilla-y at all by the olfactory system. This is where the curing process comes into play– by enabling enzymes to break down these conjugated forms, free vanillin is released.

The Curing Process

Vanilla pods in different stages of curing

Typically referred to broadly as a collective process, curing actually involves a series of separate processes such as sweating, drying, and conditioning, which allow the beans to undergo enzymatic reactions and chemical changes. During curing, the beans lose moisture, undergo fermentation, and develop the complex flavor compounds– vanillin is not the only one– that give vanilla its distinctive qualities. Additionally, curing helps to prevent spoilage and extends the shelf life of the beans, making them better suitable for storage and transportation. While not exhaustive, the following list will look at some of the key steps taken to reach a fully-cured vanilla pod.

Killing/Blanching: The freshly harvested vanilla pods are quickly blanched in hot water or exposed to steam, which stops the beans' metabolic activity and initiates enzymatic reactions necessary for flavor development.
Sweating: The pods are wrapped in cloth or placed in insulated containers to undergo sweating, a process involving hydrolysis and oxidation where enzymatic reactions continue in a controlled environment, allowing for the conversion of glucovanillin to vanillin.
Drying: The pods are then dried most commonly with periodic switching between sun exposure and shade, reducing their moisture content to prevent spoilage and retain aromatic compounds. This stage is one of the most delicate– if performed in an inconsistent manner, some pods can begin to lose their vanillin while others are not yet fully cured.
Grading: Grading systems differ depending on the country of origin, but virtually all of them take into consideration size, appearance, and moisture levels. Dried pods are sorted accordingly prior to being packaged for distribution and sale.
Conditioning: Finally, the pods are allowed to rest and undergo conditioning. This stage is generally undergone after grading, but could also be done before. They get wrapped, boxed, and preserved to ensure that the maximum potential amount of fragrant compounds are retained.

Pollination

As if the curing process were not tedious enough, even producing one vanilla pod to cure is a whole procedure in itself. Natural pollination can only occur in the New World where Eulaema orchid bees– the only organism known to carry vanilla pollen– exist. Whether or not the plant has the potential to be pollinated naturally is mostly irrelevant in the context of vanilla as a commodity crop, as only around 1% of wild, natural pollinations are successful. Because it would be incredibly inefficient to rely on such a small yield, all commercially cultivated vanilla plants are manually pollinated.

Vanilla Pollination Trivia

The now-predominant technique for hand pollination was first developed by 12-year-old Edmond Albius, a slave in Île Bourbon (now Réunion) during the early 19th century. This breakthrough revolutionized vanilla cultivation, enabling consistent fruit production.

Hand pollination typically uses a small stick or toothpick to lift the rostellum (a flap of tissue) and bring it in contact with the anther (the pollen-bearing structure) and stigma (the female reproductive organ) of the flower.

Manually pollinating the vanilla flower is a delicate process that must be done within 12 hours of blooming–the flowers remain open for just one day, and in most cases, vanilla plants bloom just once annually.

Melipona stingless bees and some hummingbirds are thought to contribute to natural pollination in addition to the confirmed Eulaema orchid bee, but conclusive evidence is lacking.

Vanilla in a Pre-Columbian World

Vanilla was considered a sacramental herb by many societies in the areas of vanilla’s native geographical distribution and has been in use by humans as far back as 2000 years prior to European contact. It was generally valued as highly as maize and cacao beans with uses ranging from fragrances and incense to medicinal purposes and as a flavorant. For the remainder of this blog, let's look at some of the most prominent civilizations that utilized vanilla.

The Olmec

An Olmec colossal head during excavation, one of the most recognized and iconic surviving artifacts of their culture

The Olmec inhabited present-day Mexico from around 1400 BCE to 400 BCE. They are the earliest known major, complex Mesoamerican civilization revealed by the archaeological record. The invention of nixtamalization is generally credited to them, as is the domestication of cacao. This might have very well been the reason why they dabbled in using vanilla, since it can help to combat bitterness.

While direct evidence of their use of vanilla is limited, it is paired with inferences drawn from archaeological findings and cultural practices of later Mesoamerican civilizations.

Adopting nixtamalization enabled the Olmec to create masa (nixtamalized maize) and from there develop the fermented masa-based drink, atole, which was occasionally flavored with vanilla.

The Maya

A Maya ceramic incense burner

The Maya civilization primarily occupied southern present-day Mexico and parts of Central America from approximately 2000 BCE to 900 CE. They continued the craft of cacao cultivation and from it developed a drink, chocolhaa (meaning “bitter water”), in which vanilla was often, though far from always, included. During this time, vanilla was most likely still being gathered from wild plants in the forests.

One of vanilla's notable non-culinary uses by the Maya is as incense, most often when mixed with copal (a type of tree resin). We know that they had a native term for vanilla: zizibic.

The Totonac

Totonac women (ethnically Totonac but obviously long after the civilization fell) with vanilla pods

The Totonac civilization existed from about 600 CE to 1420 CE, centered in the region of present-day Veracruz and Puebla in Mexico. According to their own legend, they were the first to identify and domesticate vanilla. We know this to not be entirely true– those living farther inland in the Central Valley would not have had access to it, and were likely only introduced to it after eventually converging with the more coastal Totonac.

Vanilla was not used so much by the Totonac as a flavoring or flavor enhancer. Medicinal, fragrance, and ritual uses were more common. Upon being conquered by the Aztec, the Totonac used vanilla as an offering of surrender. They too had their own word for vanilla: xanat.

The Aztec

The earliest known manuscript containing mention of vanilla was written in 1552 in Latin, from information gathered in Nahuatl

The Aztec gained introduction to vanilla following their conquest of the Totonac in 1427. Their empire was situated in present-day central Mexico, but their influence extended all the way to Central America. They used vanilla as an addition to food and drinks more extensively than any previous societies. A beverage from cocoa and vanilla called xocolatl was popular, ultimately contributing to the English word, "chocolate".

Another frequent use of vanilla was incorporation into ointments for treating syphilis, as well as into scented amulets containing ground flowers and other fragrant plant products.

And to Close... a List of Fun Facts

Madagascar dominates global vanilla production, producing approximately 80-85% of the world's supply
Premium vanilla extracts are often aged, with some varieties undergoing maturation processes not uncommonly lasting six months or more– some extracts are aged up to five years!
The global vanilla market was valued at over $1.3 billion in 2021, with demand steadily increasing due to its versatile use in various industries
Each vanilla orchid vine typically yields only a few dozen pods annually
Synthetic vanillin, derived from sources such as lignin or petrochemicals, represents a substantial portion of the global vanilla flavor (NOT real vanilla!) market, serving as a more cost-effective alternative
Vanilla cultivation requires specific climate/environmental conditions, such as a fixed temperature range, certain altitude, and not too much or too little annual precipitation– it is the second most expensive spice for a reason!

Sources

Nunn, Nathan, and Nancy Qian. 2010. “The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas.” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 24 (2): 163–88. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.24.2.163.

Odoux, Eric, and Michel Grisoni. 2010. Vanilla. 1st ed. Vol. 47. Boca Raton, [FL]: CRC Press.

Rain, Patricia. 2004. Vanilla : The Cultural History of the World’s Most Popular Flavor and Fragrance. New York: J.P. Tarcher/Penguin.

Walton, Nicholas J., Melinda J. Mayer, and Arjan Narbad. 2003. “Vanillin.” Phytochemistry (Oxford) 63 (5): 505–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(03)00149-3.

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/bittersweet-story-vanilla180962757/

https://www.gulleygreenhouse.com/vanilla-bean-orchid/

https://vanillaqueen.com/facts-about-vanilla/

https://www.kew.org/plants/vanilla#did-you-know

https://vanillapompona.com/

https://lolomercadito.com/blogs/news/scent-of-love-the-totonac-leyend-of-how-vanilla-came-to-be

https://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/health/aztec-advances-16-vanilla

https://www.iaf.gov/content/story/kakawa-chocolhaa-xocolatl-cacaoit-all-tastes-like-chocolate/

https://www.veramexicana.com/article/history-of-vanilla/

https://www.mexconnect.com/articles/1907-did-you-know-vanilla/

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