Srivatsa, Megha

Hello, my name is Megha and I am a fourth year Molecular and Cell Biology Major with a double minor in Health Care–Social Issues and Psychology at UC San Diego. My interest in food studies stems from my goal of ameliorating structural barriers that hinder the ability of particular communities from being able to access healthy and nutritious foods by using grassroots organizing and mutual aid to create community-based and environmentally conscious food systems. 

The Cost of Capsicum: Introducing the Chili Pepper to the World

Introduction

High tolerance for spicy food has always been intrinsic to the cultural identity of most Indian Americans. As fresh, roasted, or powdered, chili peppers of the Capsicum genus are proudly used in nearly every dish. Considering that Capsicum peppers are such prominent staples in most Indian cuisine, most members of the community have assumed that those fiery green and deep red fruits are indigenous to the land that the food comes from. However, a genetic analysis of various species of the Capsicum genus reveal that these peppers are actually indigenous to North America, and nearly five hundred years prior, the Capsicum pepper had never once sprouted from soil on the Indian subcontinent. It was by the early 16th century that the Capsicum pepper was introduced to the Indian subcontinent by Portuguese colonizers, who arrived in India during the Age of Exploration, or first wave imperialism. Therefore, I argue that tracing the distribution and consumption of the Capsicum pepper prior, during, and after the Columbian Exchange will reveal patterns of hegemonic injustices that are foundational to early and ongoing capitalist and colonial practices. 

Question 1: Where did the Capsicum Pepper Originate?

Genetic Distribution of Capsicum

Capsicum species are one of the most globally distributed spices in the world. The top ten countries that produce Capsicum species are countries that are distributed across half of the world’s continents; Asia, South America, North America, and Africa (Figure 1). In addition, the top four countries that supply Capsicum species are in Asia (Figure 1) and are responsible for over 83 percent of the Capsicum production from these top producers. 

However, biological research suggests that Researchers sequenced chloroplast DNA from a variety of Capsicum samples to determine the evolutionary relationships between known Capsicum species. Chloroplast DNA is a subset of genetic information in plant cells that replicates at a faster rate than a whole cell. Due to its increased replication rate, chloroplast DNA contains more mutations than the nuclear DNA of a whole cell. Tracking mutations that appear in the DNA between different samples is the key to uncovering minute genetic variances that have been passed down over time, and can ultimately reveal how related or unrelated two samples are. Based on the genetic patterns that were revealed between the species, the research group was able to construct a phylogenetic tree that reveals detailed relationships between the different Capsicum species (Figure 2) (D’Agostino, 2018). The study noted the three main species classifications that fall under the genus Capsicum are the Capsicum annuum, Capsicum baccatum, and Capsicum pubescens (D’Agostino, 2018). Highlighted are three different positions where the Capsicum annuum appears. The recurrence of this Capsicum species at multiple locations on the phylogenetic tree, particularly present within two different clades, or clusters, suggests that the Capsicum annuum contains many genetic variances within the species, and therefore likely appears in many different phenotypes, or characteristics, and may be present in a variety of locations globally.

In fact, Capsicum annuum species is one of the most popular Capsicum species in the world, noted by the well known common names of taking a variety of forms such as the bell pepper, serrano pepper, and kashmiri chili . However, despite its global presence, a second research group Capsicum annuum identified genetic similarities from the nucleus of a whole cell, and used similarities to reveal an increasing density of evolutionary relatedness with species located in the Mexican region (Figure 2) (Kraft, 2014). These results evidence that, despite the global and phenotypic diversity of the species, Capsicum annuum likely originate from Mexico. Prior to the 15th century, Capsicum seeds are thought to have spread through the New World via natural ecological routes, such as bird droppings while traversing continents.

Question 2: To Where, and How, Did Capsicum Peppers Spread?

Peppering the Old World

While the Capsicum annuum originated in Mexico, many historians report that it was the Portuguese, who arrived in Brazil as part of the Columbian Exchange, transported the crop to the old world (Hancock, 2022a). The Columbian Exchange marks the beginning of the first wave of imperialism. This time period marks the transition from feudalism to pre-capitalist societies, emphasizing wealth accumulation at the scale of an empire. Rising empires of the Old World sought out the expansive and allegedly unclaimed land in the New World, as well as any potential wealth that it may possess. In consideration of motivations for wealth accumulation, the Columbian Exchange could more accurately be described instead as a “Columbian Conquest” (Colás, 2018). Following the journeys of Christopher Columbus in the late 15th century, the Spanish were the first to set out to conquer the New World capital for precious metals, and were shortly followed by the Portuguese Spices that were accessible by a direct route to India (Hancock, 2022a). While the Spanish intended to accumulate the wealth of the empire by using precious metals, the Portuguese sought wealth accumulation by monopolizing the Spice Trade. 

In European countries, spices were a prized commodity amongst the aristocracy. The Spice Trade had been a wealthy commodity for thousands of years (Smith, 2008), and had been traded via the Silk Road (Spengler, 2019). The route that was traveled shaped the cuisine of regions in the fertile crescent (Spengler, 2019), where it passed through en route to meet the demands of European aristocrats (Figure 3). Based on this well established demand for spices, Portugal sought to control the Spice Trade by finding a direct route from Europe to India, which contained the Spice Capital that lay farthest east (Figure 3). India was famously known as the capital of black pepper, Piper nigrum, the “King of Spices” (Ilyas, 1976). West India was the only geographic location that the Piper nigrum could be cultivated (Wright, 2007). Black pepper was also one of the most in demand spice in Europe (Wright, 2007). Ultimately, it was presumed that colonizing the India would lead to the full control of the black pepper trade and create rapid wealth accumulation. 

Portuguese Colonization of the New World: Introduction to Capsicum

The colonial history of the Portuguese empire is primarily documented in its colonization of modern day Brazil, serving as the place of introduction of Portuguese colonists to the Capsicum. In the New World, the Portuguese were introduced to the Capsicum, and found a remarkable resemblance to the pungency of the Piper nigrum (Wright, 2007). Thus, Capsicum peppers were conferred the name chili pepper. 

The Portuguese happened upon the New World en route to India to capture the Spice Trade. Upon exploration the empire turned to colonizing the land. The dense Brazilian forests were used as resources to monopolize the hardwood market (Hancock, 2022b). In addition, the Portuguese expanded sugar plantations on a massive scale. To support the needed labor force, the Portuguese rapidly mobilized the slave trade between the African continent and Brazil (Hancock, 2022b) (Figure 4). The introduction of sugar plantations and slave labor became so significant that Brazil continues to be the leading producer of sugar in the 21st century (​​Nunn & Qian, 2010).

Colonization of Portuguese Africa

Little documentation has been identified regarding the introduction of Capsicum to African colonies. It is likely that, the Portuguese introduced Capsicum peppers to Portuguese African colonies, a consequence of slave trade during the 15th century (Hancock, 2022b; Eshbaugh, 1983). It is worth noting that two African countries are among the top ten producers of Capsicum in the world (Figure 1). In addition, historians note the incorporation and continued use of whole Chili peppers in soups and stews (Smith, 2015), documented approximately near the 16th century. suggesting the widespread incorporation of Capsicum into at least a few regional diets.

Like the continued sugar production in Brazil, African cities still bear open wounds and scars representing their history as colonized peoples. For example, in Sub Saharan Africa, there remains a landmark statue and center that served as a former center for slave trade for the Portuguese empire (Jerónimo, 2018) (Figure 5). The drive to accumulate capital is difficult to imagine. However, it is estimated that as a result of the Columbian exchange, well over tens of million African people were forcibly transported for the purposes of plantation slavery (Colas Ch.3). Slave labor was crucial to controlling wealth, using coercion to ensure labor acquisition and distribution, in order to pursue wealth accumulation, with little to no compensation for those involved in the laborious process, and sub-human working conditions.

Portuguese Colonization of India: Goa

In order to control the Spice Trade, the Portuguese initially set up a colony in the city of Goa, on the coast of West India where Piper nigrum is native and exclusively cultivated. Piper nigrum cultivation is an extremely tedious, delicate, and demanding process. The cultivation process requires delicate seeding, trimming, copious amounts of water, and a warm, tropical climate, and produces yield only after several years of cultivation (Ilyas, 1976). In contrast, Capsicum annuum was introduced in the late early 16th century and can currently be found being cultivated across seasons in both the North and South of India (Hancock, 2022a; Ilyas, 1976). Capsicum annuum are significantly easier to cultivate, requiring far less labor, more general climate conditions, and are ubiquitously available. When introduced to India by the Portuguese, the New World pepper is described by historians as being readily and enthusiastically accepted by the local population and quickly incorporated into the local cuisine (Hancock, 2022a). The use of Capsicum annuum spread rapidly and effectively replaced the use of Piper nigrum in Indian cuisine.

There is well documented use of Capsicum peppers in Indian cuisine from all regions of the country. Some of these uses include pickling, frying, powdering for use in stews, blending in chutneys, and cooking into a variety of curries and dishes (IIyas). Some examples of include, but are not limited to, the use of dried whole Capsicum in Vindaloo from Western India, the use of whole fresh Capsicum in Chitranna from Southern India, and the use of dried and roasted chili powder made from Capsicum in Rajma from Northern India. Vindaloo is particularly known for being very spicy, and is also a product of religious and cultural fusion between traditionally Christian meats from the Portuguese diets and the curry flavors from the Indian locals living in colonized Goa (Colás, 2018). 

However, despite the popularity of the Capsicum annuum in India, and the demonstrated resemblance of Capsicum annuum within Indian cultures itself, to the Portuguese continued to maintain control over the black pepper trade. As Goa is located East of all other Asian spice capitals (Figure 4), the Portuguese selected Goa as a port that would allow for the mediation of spice travel through the traditional Spice Trade Route (Souza, 1975). Their goal was to intercept additional spices that were being received from further East, prior to the spices reaching the fertile crescent. Goa also served as an optimal trade route to not only return to portugal by sailing around Africa, but was also convenient in creating an interconnected trade route that would be able to reach mainland Portugal, as well as Goa, African colonies, and colonies in Brazil to collect any accumulated wealth that would eventually return to the mainland of the empire in Western Europe.

In addition to the Capsicum trail left by the Portuguese empire in their colonies, some areas of Goa still retain some of the Portuguese architecture. Echoing the Portuguese structure that still stands in the former African colony (Figure 5), structures in Goa are also clearly reminiscent of European occupation (Figure 6). However, as Goa was sought as the source of wealth from which the valuable resources were to be extracted, the scenes in Goa are much more colorful, brighter, and do not represent the slavery that the African colonized people were subject to. The contrasts between the remaining structural scars of colonial occupation highlights a distinction between the different values placed on colonized regions based on the capital that is being extracted from it. The capital colony of the “King of Spice” is meant to reflect Portuguese affluence, wealth, and generosity, whereas the site of slave trading represents the abuse that lays the foundations on which the Portuguese empire is built. 

Capsicum Spread Through Europe

By the 17th century, the Capsicum had spread to Eastern and Western Europe, however through two possible avenues, and the route through which Capsicum reached Eastern Europe is debated. One potential idea is that Capsicum had spread from Portuguese colonies into the Levant, occupied by the Ottoman Empire that invaded Hungary (Smith, 2015). Alternatively, it is known that the Spanish had brought Capsicum from their North American colonies to Europe in the early 16th century, and Capsicum were being grown in Spain, France, and Italy by members of the working class (Katz, 2019). Therefore, it is plausible that the Capsicum brought by the Spanish then spread inland until reaching Hungary (Katz, 2019; Smith, 2015). While the exact route through which Capsicum reached Hungary is yet to be elucidated, the use of Capsicum annuum in Hungary is well documented. Historians describe archives from the 18th century discussing the widespread use of paprika in stews, and the ubiquitous cultivation of peppers in personal gardens (Katz, 2019; Smith, 2015). The use of Capsicum in Western Europe is prevalent in Spain with the expansion of the Spanish language to include words picamente, as well as increased French and Italian documentations of the descriptors such as piment, and peperone, respectively (Katz, 2019). One prevalent dish of the working class that arose and heavily features spice from Capsicum is paella.

The spread of the Capsicum to Hungary through the Ottoman empire would suggest yet another example of conquest, although not executed by the Portuguese, which is marked by the remaining influence of the Capsicum pepper. Alternatively, the spread of the Capsicum from Western Europe, exchanging hands between the Spanish, French, and Italians, would suggest the peaceful and consensual cultural acceptance of the crop. However, the crop was attained and is being enjoyed by people who live within empires that continue to extract such benefits from the colonies that they are actively subjecting to harming in the interest of wealth accumulation. However, it is worth noting that the Capsicum only popularized in less wealthy regions of Europe, such as Hungary and surrounding regions of Eastern Europe, and in Western Europe was only popularized amongst the working class. 

However, the European empire bourgeois maintained a distinction between themselves and the working class in their food habits. Aristocrats continued to use Piper nigrum to add heat to their food through the 16th century. However, following that time, there was a decline in not only the use of Piper nigrum in the foods of the elites, but spices overall (Katz, 2019). The reduction in black pepper was not substituted with Capsicum. Instead, elite food habits shifted with an increased popularity towards dairy and fat related items, popularizing tastes that are less pungent and more bland (Katz, 2019). 

The cause for the shift from an obsession that had lasted thousands of years past is heavily debated. Some authors propose that the introduction of the Portuguese spice trade maintained prices that were too high to be attractive to the working class consumer, while others suggest that there was simply an overall “demystification” of the source of spices once the Portuguese empire started facilitating the market (Smith, 2008). Consequently, the Portuguese empire was unable to maintain an effective monopoly on the Spice Trade, but also facilitated the spread of a cost effective and efficient Capsicum peppers through the Old World through the expansion of their empire, and popularized by the working class.

Question 3: Does the Spread of Capsicum Model Hegemonic Injustices?

The Spread of Capsicum Models Class and Racial Hegemonies

The historical analysis of the colonial legacy left by the Portuguese empire dispersing the Capsicum pepper by the 17th century reveals patterns that evidence the class and race-based structural hegemonies that underlie colonial conquest, and therefore the foundations of capitalism. For example, the removal of capsicum from New World colonies represents the free will with which empires will immorally take in the pursuit of wealth accumulation, subjugating the non-white indigenous population to the morals executed by white christian colonizers. The extraction of black pepper in India through colonization of Goa, replaces the Piper nigrum with Capsicum in the local cuisine, freeing up more capital that the Portuguese can themselves to acquire more wealth from the land that non-white indigenous people have spent centuries inhabiting and cultivating. Finally, the spread of Capsicum to Africa through the slave trade represents the literal subjugation and abuse of non-white persons to menial labor and sub-human conditions, to work to produce capital that will increase the wealth that is accumulated. Each of these three examples of Portuguese colonization represents class-based hegemony by reducing the outcomes of persons based on lack of motivation to accumulate capital, or nonadherence to capitalist and colonial ideologies. 

The analysis of the dispersal and use patterns of Capsicum within Europe by the 18th century reveals class-based hegemonies that exist within empires and within racial groups that underlie the basic foundations of an empire. Popularization of Capsicum amongst working-class French, Italians, and Spanish, but the continued use of Piper nigrum amongst the European bourgeois evidences that the ingredients used to add heat to food create a behavioral distinction between different people within an empire that own different levels of wealth, suggesting in the early stages that even within an empire, capitalist societies are designed to not only create, but also emphasize inequity. Furthermore, the popularization of Capsicum amongst Eastern European countries that did not form empires further suggests that social divisions were created in pursuit of capitalism within a racial group of white people. And finally, the popularization of bland foods and loss of interest in spices amongst the bourgeois contrasts the rising popularity of the Capsicum amongst the working class that rivals the Piper nigrum reveals that the European aristocracy are committed to maintaining behavioral distinctions of class inequities that arise as a result of capitalist structures.

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