Fire Island National Seashore

Fire Island National Seashore

New York

Vector-borne Diseases on Fire Island

Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR--2005/018

Author: Howard S. Ginsberg

USGS-Patuxent Wildlife Research Center

Summary: This paper discusses eleven tick-borne and five mosquito-borne pathogens that

are known to occur at FIIS, or could potentially occur. The potential for future occurrence, and

ecological factors that influence occurrence, are assessed for each disease. Lyme disease is the

most common vector-borne disease on Fire Island. The Lyme spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi,

is endemic in local tick and wildlife populations.

Public education, personal precautions against tick bite, and prompt treatment of early-stage infections

can help manage the risk of Lyme disease on Fire Island. The pathogens that cause Human

Monocytic Ehrlichiosis and Tularemia have been isolated from ticks or wildlife on Fire Island,

and conditions suggest that other tick- borne diseases (including Babesiosis, Rocky Mountain

Spotted Fever, and Human Granulocytic Ehrlichiosis) might also occur, but these are far less

common than Lyme disease, if present.

West Nile Virus (WNV) is the primary mosquito-borne human pathogen that is known to

occur on Fire Island. Ecological conditions and recent epizootiological events suggest that WNV

occurs in foci that can shift from year to year. Therefore, a surveillance program with

appropriate responses to increasing epizootic activity can help manage the risk of WNV

transmission on Fire Island.

Link to article, click HERE.

National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Northeast Region

Boston, Massachusetts

Vector-borne Diseases on Fire Island, New York

(Fire Island National Seashore Science Synthesis Paper)

Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR--2005/018

ON THE COVER

Female Deer Tick (Ixodes scapularis), Tick image courtesy of, Iowa State University

Department of Entomology, http://www.ent.iastate.edu/imagegal/ticks/iscap/i-scap-f.html.

Vector-borne Diseases on Fire Island, New York

(Fire Island National Seashore Science Synthesis Paper)

Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR--2005/018

Howard S. Ginsberg

USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center

Coastal Field Station, Woodward Hall-PLS

University of Rhode Island

Kingston, RI 02881

September 2005

U.S. Department of the Interior

National Park Service

Northeast Region

Boston, Massachusetts

The Northeast Region of the National Park Service (NPS) comprises national parks and related areas in 13 New

England and Mid-Atlantic states. The diversity of parks and their resources are reflected in their designations as

national parks, seashores, historic sites, recreation areas, military parks, memorials, and rivers and trails. Biological,

physical, and social science research results, natural resource inventory and monitoring data, scientific literature

reviews, bibliographies, and proceedings of technical workshops and conferences related to these park units are

disseminated through the NPS/NER Technical Report (NRTR) and Natural Resources Report (NRR) series. The

reports are a continuation of series with previous acronyms of NPS/PHSO, NPS/MAR, NPS/BSO-RNR and

NPS/NERBOST. Individual parks may also disseminate information through their own report series.

Natural Resources Reports are the designated medium for information on technologies and resource management

methods; "how to" resource management papers; proceedings of resource management workshops or conferences;

and natural resource program descriptions and resource action plans.

Technical Reports are the designated medium for initially disseminating data and results of biological, physical, and

social science research that addresses natural resource management issues; natural resource inventories and

monitoring activities; scientific literature reviews; bibliographies; and peer-reviewed proceedings of technical

workshops, conferences, or symposia.

Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the

National Park Service.

The statements, findings, conclusions, recommendations, and data in this report are solely those of the author(s), and

do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service.

Print copies of reports in these series, produced in limited quantity and only available as long as the supply lasts, or

preferably, file copies on CD, may be obtained by sending a request to the address on the back cover. Print copies

also may be requested from the NPS Technical Information Center (TIC), Denver Service Center, PO Box 25287,

Denver, CO 80225-0287. A copy charge may be involved. To order from TIC, refer to document D-110.

This report may also be available as a downloadable portable document format file from the Internet at

http://www.nps.gov/nero/science/.

Please cite this publication as:

Ginsberg, H.S. September 2005. Vector-borne diseases of Fire Island, New York (Fire Island National Seashore

Science Synthesis Paper). Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR--2005/018. National Park Service. Boston,

MA.

NPS D-110 September 2005

PREFACE

FIRE ISLAND NATIONAL SEASHORE

Science Synthesis Papers to Support Preparation of a

General Management Plan

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Fire Island National Seashore (FIIS) is scheduled to begin preparation of a new General

Management Plan (GMP) in the near future. A GMP outlines how natural and cultural

resources, public uses, and park operations should be managed over the next several decades.

The GMP addresses significant issues or challenges that are facing the park, proposes

management solutions, and establishes management priorities. The Fire Island GMP will be

prepared by a team of planners, with input from the park, technical subject matter experts, and

with substantial public involvement.

To insure that the GMP team has all relevant natural resource information available to them, a

series of scientific synthesis papers has been prepared for a variety of natural resource topics that

will be of special relevance to the Fire Island GMP. Based on a 2-day meeting with the FIIS

Superintendent, FIIS Chief of Natural Resource Management, Northeast Region planners, and

Northeast Region science staff, the following natural resource topic areas were identified;

• Geomorphology of beaches and dunes

• Physical processes of the bay shoreline

• Habitat ecology and water quality of Great South Bay

• Conservation of Living Marine Resources (habitats, finfish and shellfish)

• Vector-borne diseases

• White-tailed Deer ecology and management

For each of these topics, leading scientific experts were invited to prepare papers that synthesize

our current state-of-knowledge. There is a wealth of published technical information on these

topics. The purpose of these papers was to provide a scientifically credible summary of the

available and relevant information and present this information in a succinct manner. The GMP

team will receive papers that provide an objective, independent and expert synthesis of an

extensive and often complex technical literature. Each paper was subject to the scientific peer

review process.

Each synthesis paper is expected to accomplish the following;

• Synthesize and interpret the relevant literature and monitoring data to describe the

fundamental processes controlling the natural resource, and describe historic and recent

trends or rates of change for relevant processes, habitats, or species.

• Describe current and historic management, regulatory, and other activities that have been

relevant to the particular natural resource.

• Identify gaps in our current understanding of the natural resource.

iii

Because the synthesis papers are prepared prior to initiation of the GMP process, if information

gaps are considered critical to decision-making for the GMP there may be adequate time to

conduct the appropriate required studies or data analysis tasks. Moreover, the papers will serve

to identify topics or issues that should be the focus of additional synthesis or review papers in

support of the GMP information gathering and synthesis phase.

OVERVIEW OF THE PAPERS

These summaries are derived, with some editing, directly from the individual papers.

The Coastal Geomorphology of Fire Island: a Portrait of Continuity and Change

Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR--2005/021

Authors: Norbert P. Psuty, Michele Grace, and Jeffrey P. Pace

Rutgers University

Summary: Fire Island has a well-developed beach on the ocean side and is dominated by a

variety of dune features, reaching elevations of 11-13m. Much of the island is undeveloped and

retains a wide array of coastal dune forms in near natural condition. However, there are a

number of residential communities, primarily on the western portion of Fire Island, that have

altered the landscape and geomorphological processes. The controlled inlets at either end of the

island are a type of interactive feature that have particular roles in the passage of sand along the

shore. Thus, the geomorphological characteristics and configuration of the island are products of

a suite of natural processes, complemented by human actions. This paper describes the

landforms (beaches, dunes, inlets, and barrier island gaps) and basic controls on these landforms,

such as tides, wave climate, storm history, the availability and rate of supply of sediment, and sea

level rise.

There is insufficient sediment coming to Fire Island from all of the potential sources to

maintain the entire system. There is evidence of erosion on all parts of the island, except the

artificially-created Democrat Point. The sediment deficits are greatest along the eastern portion

of the island, but are buffered in the central and western area because of the contributions from

an offshore source. The recent acceleration in sea-level rise, coupled with the general negative

sediment budget, will result in continued beach erosion and dune displacement, with greater

effects occurring in the eastern portion of the island.

During the peer review process, it was determined that a follow-up synthesis paper should

be prepared that specifically focuses on the response of Fire Island beaches and dunes to human

activities, including ORV traffic, structures, sand fencing, beach scraping, and other activities.

This paper is presently being developed.

Bay Shoreline Physical Processes, Fire Island

Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR--2005/020

Authors: Karl F. Nordstrom, Rutgers University

Nancy L. Jackson, New Jersey Institute of Technology

Summary: Wave and current energies on the bay side of Fire Island are low, but much of the

bay shoreline is eroding. The greatest changes occur near inlets or next to marinas and

bulkheads. Inlets, overwash and dune migration deliver sediment from the ocean to the bay

where it forms substrate that evolves into tidal flats, marshes and beaches. These sediment inputs

allow barrier islands to maintain themselves as they migrate landward under the influence of sea

level rise. The creation and migration of inlets in the past extended their influence well beyond

locations of present inlets.

About 17.0 km of the 49.5 km long bay shoreline of Fire Island is marsh; 24.5 km is beach;

and 8.0 km is fronted by bulkheads, marina breakwaters and docks. The biggest constraints to

allowing Fire Island to undergo natural dynamism are the desire to protect private properties on

the island from erosion and overwash and the need to protect the mainland from flooding due to

formation of new inlets. Bulkheads are common on the bay shore in developed communities.

These structures replace natural formations landward of them and prevent sand from entering the

littoral drift system, causing sediment starvation in unprotected areas downdrift. These adverse

effects can be reduced by replacing lost sediment by beach nourishment. Use of beach fill on the

low tide terrace covers benthic habitat. This problem could be avoided by placing fill above the

mean high water mark, creating an eroding feeder upland.

Dune building projects on the oceanside and construction of bulkheads on the bayside

restrict the delivery of sediment by inlets, wave overwash and aeolian transport. Temporary

inlets would provide some sediment, but artificial closure by human efforts would limit these

inputs to a much smaller area than in the past.

Future sea levels are expected to rise at a greater rate, causing increased frequency of

overwash and creation of new inlets if not prevented by beach nourishment and dune-building

projects on the oceanside. Elimination of the delivery of sediment to the bayside by these natural

processes will result in continued retreat of the bay shoreline into the higher portions of the

barrier island, resulting in loss of marsh habitat, increase in open water habitat, and truncation of

cross-shore environmental gradients.

Water Quality and Ecology of Great South Bay

Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR--2005/019

Author: Kenneth R. Hinga

University of Rhode Island

Summary: The overall objective of this paper is to present a short synopsis of information on

the characteristics of water quality and ecology of the Great South Bay, with particular attention

to the waters within the boundaries of Fire Island National Seashore (FIIS), where possible. This

report serves as an update and addition to the report Estuarine Resources of the Fire Island

National Seashore and Vicinity (Bokuniewicz et al., 1993). Great South Bay is approximately

45 km long, with a maximum width of about 11 km. The Bay is shallow, with an average depth

at mean low water of just 1.3m.

Regarding water quality, a review of bacterial indicator monitoring data suggests that some

bayside beaches and marinas of Fire Island have had fecal coliform concentrations that are at or

approaching levels of concern, but in general the levels are quite acceptable. Nutrient

enrichment is an issue for all shallow, enclosed, lagoon-type estuaries, like Great South Bay.

There is an encouraging trend of decreasing dissolved inorganic nitrogen in Great South Bay

over the past quarter century. Coincident with the decline in nitrogen, there appears to be a trend

of decreasing primary production, as determined by measuring phytoplankton chlorophyll

concentration, over the past 15 years. Historically, portions of Great South Bay (e.g., near and in

Moriches Bay) experienced intense phytoplankton blooms, probably attributed to discharges

from duck farms. Since 1985, a brown tide has occurred periodically to disruptive levels in the

Bay. Brown tide blooms can cause significant mortalities of hard clams and can damage

seagrass beds because the blooms prevent light sufficient to support growth of the seagrass

species. The densest seagrass beds in the Bay are found along the shallow shoreline of the

Seashore.

Conservation and Management of Living Marine Resources

Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR--2005/023

Authors: David O. Conover, Robert Cerrato, and William Wise

Stony Brook University

Summary: The finfish species likely to be landed by commercial harvesters from Fire Island NS

or nearby waters are bluefish, winter flounder, summer flounder, weakfish, Atlantic silversides,

and menhaden. The recreational species landed within the Bay have not been described in detail

since the 1960s, but total recreational landings for New York as a whole suggest that fluke,

winter flounder, bluefish, weakfish, tautog, and black sea bass are the main species. Some of the

fish species landed in the Seashore region are present only transiently as older juveniles and

adults. Such species would include striped bass, menhaden, eels, and weakfish. These species do

not use the Bay as a spawning and nursery area. Other species use Fire Island waters as both

nursery grounds for young-of-the-year (YOY) stages as well as adults. The value of Seashore

estuarine habitats for these species is great (bluefish, winter flounder, fluke, tautog, black sea

bass). Ecologically important species, those that are an important forage species for piscivorous

fishes, include Atlantic silversides, bay anchovy, sand lance, northern pipefish, and others.

Killifishes are a major component of the fish fauna of salt marsh habitats. Shellfish of potential

recreational or commercial value found within Seashore boundaries include surfclam, hard clam,

blue mussel, soft clam, oyster, bay scallop, razor clam, conch, blue crab, Jonah crab, rock crab,

lady crab, spider crab, and horseshoe crab (although not technically classified as shellfish).

Generally, there has been a dramatic decline in the commercial harvest of shellfish species from

the Bay. For example, since 1976 the harvest of hard clams has declined 100 fold. It is

recommended that the Seashore take a leadership role in reaching out cooperatively to

government and non-government agencies toward encouraging restoration of Great South Bay

living marine resources and increasing public awareness of coastal zone management issues.

Vector-borne Diseases on Fire Island

Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR--2005/018

Author: Howard S. Ginsberg

USGS-Patuxent Wildlife Research Center

Summary: This paper discusses eleven tick-borne and five mosquito-borne pathogens that

are known to occur at FIIS, or could potentially occur. The potential for future occurrence, and

ecological factors that influence occurrence, are assessed for each disease. Lyme disease is the

most common vector-borne disease on Fire Island. The Lyme spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi,

is endemic in local tick and wildlife populations. Public education, personal precautions against

tick bite, and prompt treatment of early-stage infections can help manage the risk of Lyme

disease on Fire Island. The pathogens that cause Human Monocytic Ehrlichiosis and Tularemia

have been isolated from ticks or wildlife on Fire Island, and conditions suggest that other tick-

borne diseases (including Babesiosis, Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, and Human Granulocytic

Ehrlichiosis) might also occur, but these are far less common than Lyme disease, if present.

West Nile Virus (WNV) is the primary mosquito-borne human pathogen that is known to

occur on Fire Island. Ecological conditions and recent epizootiological events suggest that WNV

occurs in foci that can shift from year to year. Therefore, a surveillance program with

appropriate responses to increasing epizootic activity can help manage the risk of WNV

transmission on Fire Island.

White-tailed Deer Ecology and Management on Fire Island

Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR--2005/022

Author: H. Brian Underwood

USGS-Patuxent Wildlife Research Center

Summary: Deer populations have grown dramatically on Fire Island National Seashore

(FIIS) since 1983. Trend data reveal a dichotomy in deer dynamics. In the eastern half of the

island, deer density appears to have stabilized between 25-35 deer/km2. In the western half of

the island, deer densities are 3-4 times as high in residential communities. Concomitant with that

increase has been a general decline in physical stature of some animals, visible impacts on island

vegetation, especially in the Sunken Forest, and a perceived increase in the frequency of human

and deer interactions. Intensive research on FIIS has shown that deer occupy relatively

predictable home ranges throughout the year, but can and do move up and down the island.

Impacts of deer on vegetation are most dramatic in the Sunken Forest. Most obvious are the

effects of browsing on the herb layer of the Sunken Forest. The least obvious, but perhaps more

significant impact is the stark lack of regeneration of canopy tree species since about 1970,

which coincides with the initiation of the deer population irruption. A number of herbs and

shrubs have been greatly reduced in the understory, and their propagules from the soil.

Deer do not readily transmit the bacterium that causes Lyme disease to other organisms,

but deer are important hosts for adult ticks which underscores their importance in the

transmission pathway of the disease to humans. Deer on FIIS, while occasionally docile, are still

wild animals and should be treated as such. Some animals are relatively unafraid of humans due

to the absence of predation and a lack of harassment. This in turn has contributed to a long-

standing tradition of feeding deer by many residents and visitors, particularly in western portions

of the island. Feeding affects both the behavior and population dynamics of deer inhabiting Fire

Island. Recent efforts to reduce deer feeding by visitors and residents have been very effective.

Ongoing experiments with Porcine Zona Pellucida immunocontraception demonstrate some

promise of this technology as a population management tool. Success appears to be linked

directly to factors affecting access to deer, which vary considerably among treatment locations.

Continued high National Park Service visibility among communities in the form of interpretive

programs, extension and outreach activities, and continued support of research and monitoring of

deer and their effects on island biota are keys to successful resolution of persistent issues.

Preface prepared by:

Charles T. Roman

National Park Service

North Atlantic Coast Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE......................................................................................................................................iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................................................................................................ix

SUMMARY.....................................................................................................................................1

INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1

BACKGROUND.............................................................................................................................1

Tick-Borne Diseases....................................................................................................................2

Powassan Encephalitis.............................................................................................................2

Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF).................................................................................3

Human Granulocytic Ehrlichiosis (HGE)................................................................................3

Human Monocytic Ehrlichiosis (HME)...................................................................................4

Human Ehrlichiosis..................................................................................................................4

Lyme disease (LD, Lyme borreliosis).....................................................................................7

Borrelia lonestari (Lyme disease-like syndrome)....................................................................7

Relapsing fever group Borrelia...............................................................................................8

Tularemia.................................................................................................................................8

Q Fever.....................................................................................................................................9

Babesiosis................................................................................................................................9

Mosquito-Borne Diseases............................................................................................................9

West Nile Encephalitis (caused by West Nile Virus, WNV).................................................10

St. Louis Encephalitis (SLE)..................................................................................................11

Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE).......................................................................................11

LaCrosse Encephalitis (LAC)................................................................................................12

Cache Valley Virus................................................................................................................12

Malaria...................................................................................................................................13

VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE MONITORING AT FIRE ISLAND NATIONAL SEASHORE.13

Tick-Borne Diseases..................................................................................................................13

Mosquito-Borne Diseases..........................................................................................................14

RELATIONSHIPS WITH SUFFOLK COUNTY, NEW YORK STATE, AND FEDERAL

AGENCIES....................................................................................................................................14

FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS....................................................................................................15

LITERATURE CITED..................................................................................................................17

APPENDIX 1.................................................................................................................................27

2003 Mosquito Surveillance and Management Protocol...........................................................27

APPENDIX 2.................................................................................................................................33

2003 Mosquito Action Plan (Map) Fire Island National Seashore (8/12/03)............................33

Introduction....................................................................................................................................34

APPENDIX 3.................................................................................................................................49

2003 Annual Report of the Mosquito Surveillance and Management Program........................49

SUMMARY

Lyme disease is the most common vector-borne disease on Fire Island. The Lyme

spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, is endemic in local tick and wildlife populations. Public

education, personal precautions against tick bite, and prompt treatment of early-stage infections

can help manage the risk of Lyme disease on Fire Island. The pathogens that cause Human

Monocytic Ehrlichiosis and Tularemia have been isolated from ticks or wildlife on Fire Island,

and conditions suggest that other tick-borne diseases (including Babesiosis, Rocky Mountain

Spotted Fever, and Human Granulocytic Ehrlichiosis) might also occur, but these are far less

common than Lyme disease, if present.

West Nile Virus is the primary mosquito-borne human pathogen that is known to occur

on Fire Island. Ecological conditions and recent epizootiological events suggest that WNV

occurs in foci that can shift from year to year. Therefore, a surveillance program with

appropriate responses to increasing epizootic activity can help manage the risk of WNV

transmission on Fire Island.

INTRODUCTION

Several vector-borne disease agents are known to occur on Fire Island (FIIS), including

both tick-borne and mosquito-borne pathogens. Ginsberg (1990) reviewed the vector-borne

diseases of FIIS and concluded that Lyme disease was the most common, with mosquito-borne

arbovirusal diseases being rare or absent. The recent introduction of West Nile Virus (WNV) to

the New York area has modified this situation, and requires renewed attention. In this review,

the occurrence of eleven tick-borne and five mosquito-borne pathogens (Tables 1 & 2) will be

discussed. Some of these pathogens are known to occur at FIIS, while others could potentially

occur. The potential for future occurrence, and ecological factors that influence occurrence, are

assessed for each disease.

BACKGROUND

In this section, I review literature on tick-borne and mosquito-borne diseases that occur,

or that might potentially occur, on Fire Island. Transmission of human diseases by other blood-

feeding arthropods on Fire Island (lice, fleas, biting midges, etc.) has not been reported.

The discussion in this report requires the use of several entomological and medical terms.

Most of the diseases covered are zoonotic diseases or zoonoses, which means that they are

primarily diseases of animals (which can sometimes be transmitted to people). This report

covers only vector-borne diseases, which are diseases transmitted by vectors, most commonly

arthropods such as ticks or mosquitoes. Vertebrates that maintain the pathogen are called

reservoirs. The pathogen persists in populations of reservoirs, and is transmitted to other

vertebrates, including other reservoirs, and sometimes humans, by vectors. The maintenance of

pathogens in wild animals, and transmission by vectors, is the enzootic cycle. When enzootic

spread increases substantially, this increase is called epizootic activity. If the pathogen is

transmitted to humans, this is epidemic activity. For many diseases, the vectors responsible for

enzootic transmission are the same species as for epidemic transmission (e.g., Lyme disease). In

contrast, for some pathogens different vector species are involved in enzootic transmission than

in transmission to people. In this case, enzootic vectors can be distinguished from epidemic

vectors or bridge vectors (vectors that bridge the cycle from enzootic to epidemic activity). An

example is West Nile Virus in the northeast, where enzootic transmission occurs among birds by

bird-feeding mosquitoes, while epidemic activity involves mosquitoes with broader host ranges

that bite both birds (where they can acquire the virus) and mammals (to which they can later

transmit the pathogen). The pathogen that causes a disease is called the etiologic agent of the

disease. Prevalence is the proportion of a group of organisms at a given time that are infected

with a pathogen, expressed as a proportion or percentage. Incidence, on the other hand, is the

number of new infections per unit time. Thus prevalence is a proportion, while incidence is a

rate. For comprehensive background information, the reader is referred to Mullen & Durden

(2002)..

Tick-Borne Diseases

Ticks are Arachnids, related to other eight-legged arthropods such as mites, spiders, and

scorpions. The ticks associated with disease transmission to humans on Fire Island are hard

ticks, family Ixodidae. The three species that most commonly bite humans include the black-

legged tick or deer tick, Ixodes scapularis, the American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis, and

the Lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum. These species hatch from the eggs as larvae (which

have six legs), attach to a vertebrate host, engorge with blood, then drop off and molt to the

nymphal stage. The nymphs attach to hosts, engorge, drop off, then molt to the adult stage

(nymphs and adults have eight legs). Adults mate, take blood meals, and the females lay eggs.

This life cycle typically takes two years on Fire Island. Pathogens can be picked up during

feeding on vertebrate hosts during any stage of the life cycle. Pathogens that are acquired during

the larval or nymphal stages can be transmitted horizontally to vertebrate hosts during nymphal

or adult feeding. In some cases (e.g., Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever), pathogens can be

transmitted vertically from female ticks directly to their offspring. Details of tick biology and

disease transmission are covered by Sonenshine (1991, 1993).

Powassan Encephalitis

Powassan virus has been isolated from several species of ixodid ticks in New York State.

Traditionally, the primary vector was considered to be Ixodes cookei, which attaches primarily to

woodchucks (not known from Fire Island) and carnivores (Artsob 1989, Kierans & Litwak

1989). Powassan virus can cause severe encephalitis in people, but human cases are rare.

Recently, a new flavivirus in the Tick-Borne-Encphalitis group was isolated from deer ticks,

Ixodes scapularis (=I. dammini), in coastal New England (Telford et al. 1997). This virus, which

is currently called deer tick virus (DTV), has been isolated from I. scapularis and from white-

footed mice, Peromyscus leucopus, in New England and Wisconsin (Ebel et al. 1999, 2000).

DTV is currently considered a lineage of Powassan virus (Ebel et al. 2001), but it is not clear

whether it causes human disease.

Red fox (Vulpes fulva) are present on Fire Island (Northup 1985), so I. cookei could also

be present (although this species has not been reported on FIIS). I. scapularis and P. leucopus

are common on Fire Island (Ginsberg 1992), so DTV could potentially occur as well. However,

to date no Powassan virus strains have been recorded on Fire Island.

Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF)

The American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis, is the primary vector of the etiologic

agent of RMSF, Rickettsia rickettsii, in the eastern United States (Harwood & James 1979).

Nationwide, the number of human cases varies from roughly 200 to 1200 per year, with most

cases in the southeastern and southcentral states (Burgdorfer 1975, CDC 1990). New York state

averaged 10.8 cases per year from 1997 through 2001 (CDC 1998, 1999, 2001a, 2002a, 2003).

D. variabilis infected with R. rickettsii is widely distributed on Long Island (Benach et al. 1977),

and human cases of RMSF have been reported (Vianna & Hinman 1971, White & Flynn 1990).

However, no cases have been specifically attributed to tick bites on Fire Island, partly because

frequent travel between Fire Island and Long Island makes it difficult to pinpoint the site where

an infection was acquired. The lone star tick, A. americanum, has been suspected as a vector of

RMSF, but this remains controversial, and current thought is that this is highly unlikely.

Both D. variabilis and A. americanum occur on Fire Island (Ginsberg 1992). R. ricketsii

is transmitted vertically (from mother to offspring) by D. variabilis, and some wildlife species

can apparently function as reservoirs to amplify infection. Species that can potentially serve as

reservoirs on Fire Island include eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus), and several

species of rodents, medium-sized mammals, and birds (Burgdorfer 1975, McCormick 1975,

Northup 1985). Therefore, ecological conditions are such that RMSF could be present on Fire

Island. The primary vector, D. variabilis, is far less common that either I. scapularus or A.

americanum, and if it exists, RMSF is far less common than Lyme disease on Fire Island.

Nevertheless, the focal nature of D. variabilis distribution could potentially result in local

hotspots of infection that might not be easily detected by routine sampling. Therefore,

precautions against possible exposure to RMSF should be maintained, especially in view of the

severity of the infection.

Human Granulocytic Ehrlichiosis (HGE)

Anaplasma phagocytophilum (formerly Ehrlichia phagocytophila) was first isolated from

ticks and from human patients in the northern Midwest in the 1990’s (Chen et al. 1994, Dumler

et al. 2001). The primary vector is the black-legged tick (=deer tick), Ixodes scapularis, and its

mammal hosts serve as reservoirs, especially the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus

(Pancholi et al. 1995, Levin & Fish 2001). This rickettsial pathogen causes a febrile illness of

varying severity in people, and can sometimes be fatal.

The distribution of A. phagocytophilum in North America is now known to include the

Atlantic coastal states, the northern Midwest, and California (CDC 2003, Maurin et al. 2003). In

New York State, ehrlichiosis (including HGE and HME) has been reported from the lower

Hudson Valley area and from eastern Long Island (CDC 1998, Wallace et al. 1998, Aguero-

Rosenfeld 2002). A total of 241 cases of HGE were reported to the CDC from New York state

in 1999, 2000, and 2001 (CDC 2001a, 2002a, 2003). There have been few or no attempts to

isolate A. phagocytophilum from ticks on Fire Island, but since the vector and reservoir are both

common on FIIS the pathogen could potentially exist there as well. Whether A.

phagocytophilum occurs on Fire Island is currently unknown.

Human Monocytic Ehrlichiosis (HME)

Ehrlichia chaffeensis was first isolated from patients and ticks in the late 1980’s

(Anderson et al. 1991). The pathogen, which causes a febrile illness of varying severity that can

sometimes be fatal, is now known to be widely distributed in the United States (CDC 1998,

2003, Paddock & Childs 2003). A total of 35 cases of HME were reported from New York state

in 1999, 2000, and 2001 (CDC 2001a, 2002a, 2003). The primary vector is the lone star tick,

Amblyomma americanum, and the primary vertebrate reservoir is the white-tailed deer,

Odocoileus virginianus (Ewing et al. 1995). Both species are highly abundant on Fire Island

(Ginsberg & Zhioua 1996, 1999, Underwood et al. 1998). The lone star tick, formerly a southern

species with dense populations known from the New Jersey pine barrens and south (Hair &

Bowman 1986), is expanding its range northward, and is now abundant on Fire Island, eastern

Long Island, NY, and on Prudence Island in Narragansett Bay, RI (Ginsberg et al. 1991, Mather

& Mather 1990).

Recently, I. chaffeensis was isolated from A. americanum collected at the Lighthouse

Tract on Fire Island (Mixson et al. 2004). Infection rates were low, with 5.4 % of adults (N=37),

and less than 1 % of nymphs (N=221) infected. Further sampling is currently underway to assess

the distribution and prevalence of I. chaffeensis in lone star ticks on Fire Island and southern

Long Island, and the pathogen has now been isolated from several sites in eastern Long Island

(this is a collaborative effort including the National Park Service, U.S. Geological Survey,

Centers for Disease Control, Suffolk County Vector Control, and the University of Rhode

Island).

Human Ehrlichiosis

Ehrlichia ewingii has been isolated from dogs in New York State (Goodman et al. 2003),

and can cause disease in humans as well, especially immunocompromised patients (Sonenshine

et al. 2002). E. ewingii can be transmitted by A. americanum, but it is not known whether this

pathogen occurs on Fire Island.

Table 1. Tick-borne diseases that are present, or that could potentially occur on Fire Island.

Pathogen Disease Primary Vectors* Isolated from Fire

Island†

Deer Tick Virus Powassan Encephalitis Ixodes scapularis No

Rickettsia rickettsii Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever Dermacentor variabilis No

Anaplasma phagocytophilum Human Granulocytic Ehrlichiosis Ixodes scapularis No

Ehrlichia chaffeensis Human Monocytic Ehrlichiosis Amblyomma americanum Yes

Ehrlichia ewingii Human ehrlichiosis Amblyomma americanum No

Borrelia burgdorferi Lyme disease (Lyme borreliosis) Ixodes scapularis Yes

Borrelia lonestari Lyme disease-like syndrome ? Amblyomma americanum No

Borrelia sp. nov.

(relapsing fever group)

unknown Ixodes scapularis No

Francisella tularensis Tularemia ixodid tick species

(or contact with rabbit)

Yes

Coxiella burnetii Q Fever airborne transmission,

various tick species

Babesia microti Babesiosis Ixodes scapularis No

* All tick species listed have been collected on Fire Island (Ginsberg 1992).

† Pathogen has been isolated from tick or from wild vertebrate host on Fire Island (see text for details).

Table 2. Mosquito-borne diseases that are present, or that could potentially occur on Fire Island.

Pathogen/Disease Enzootic Vector(s)* Potential Bridge Vectors* Isolated

†

West Nile Virus Culex pipiens

Cx. restuans

Cx. salinarius

Aedes vexans

Aedes sollicitans

Coquillettidia perturbans

Yes

St. Louis Encephalitis Cx. pipiens

Eastern Equine Encephalitis Culiseta melanura Ae. vexans

Ae. sollicitans

Cq. Perturbans

LaCrosse Encephlaitis Ae. triseriatus Ae. triseriatus

Malaria not zoonotic Anopheles quadrimaculatus

An. Punctipennis

All mosquito species listed have been collected on Fire Island (Ginsberg & Rohlf 1985, Lussier 2003).

† Pathogen has been isolated from mosquito or from wild vertebrate host on Fire Island (see text for detai

Lyme disease (LD, Lyme borreliosis)

Lyme disease is the most commonly reported tick-borne disease in the United States.

Reported cases each year were in the 16,000 - 17,000 range nationwide in the late 1990’s

through 2001, but climbed to 23,763 cases in 2002 (CDC 2004). Human cases are mostly

concentrated in the northeastern, mid-Atlantic, and north central states (CDC 2001b, 2003).

From 1991 through 2001, New York state averaged 4,172 human cases per year (CDC 1992,

1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2001a, 2002a, 2003), with LD activity concentrated

in eastern Long Island and the lower Hudson River valley (White 1991). Of national park sites

in the eastern U.S., Fire Island has the highest density of deer ticks, Ixodes scapularis, infected

with the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi (Ginsberg 1992). Lyme disease is

common on Fire Island, which has been the subject of epidemiological studies of Lyme disease

(Hanrahan et al. 1984) as well as numerous studies of tick ecology (Ginsberg & Ewing 1989,

Ginsberg & Zhioua 1996, 1999, Ginsberg et al. 1998, Zhioua et al. 1999) and spirochete

transmission dynamics (Ginsberg 1988, 1992, 1993a).

The high prevalence of Lyme disease results from the abundance of excellent reservoir

species (e.g., white-footed mice, Peromyscus leucopus), coupled with the abundance of vectors

(Ixodes scapularis), and the two-year life cycle of the vector (Lane et al. 1991, Ginsberg 1992,

1993b, Piesman 2002). Eggs hatch in mid summer, and the largely uninfected larvae attach to

small mammal and bird hosts, where they can acquire the pathogen. These larvae overwinter

and emerge as nymphs the following spring, and many of the nymphs are infected. They feed

and emerge as adults in the fall, with a higher prevalence of infection in adults than in nymphs.

However, since the nymphs are active during peak periods of human activity (May through July),

most human cases result from the bites of nymphal ticks (Fish 1993).

Management of ticks and Lyme disease has been reviewed by several authors (e.g.,

Wilson & Deblinger 1993, Stafford & Kitron 2002, Ginsberg & Stafford in press). However,

because of the high prevalence of B. burgdorferi in high-density tick populations on Fire Island,

routine management is unlikely to interrupt the enzootic cycle (Ginsberg 1992, 1993a). Specific

recommendations for personal protection against tick bite on Fire Island have been developed

(Ginsberg 1990, 1992), and remain important. A vaccine that was formerly available against

Lyme disease (Hayes & Schriefer 2002), has been removed from the market by the

manufacturer.

Borrelia lonestari (Lyme disease-like syndrome)

Early reports suggested that the lone star tick, A. americanuim, could transmit Lyme

disease (Schulze et al. 1984). However, the spirochete isolated from A. americanum, though

positive in some relatively non-specific immunological tests, could not be cultured in BSK

medium, the standard method for B. burgdorferi. Subsequent study has identified a new

spirochete from A. americanum (Barbour et al. 1996), which has been named Borrelia lonestari.

This spirochete might be responsible for a Lyme-like syndrome found in some patients bitten by

lone star ticks (James et al. 1996), but this has not been definitively established. Lone star ticks

have been screened for spirochetes on Fire Island, including 52 nymphs, 3 adult males and 2

females collected by flagging and analyzed by dark field microscopy (Ginsberg 1992), and 260

nymphs collected as they dropped as engorged larvae from birds that were collected in mistnets

at the Lighthouse Tract on Fire Island and tested by Direct Immunofluorescent Assay (DFA)

using a fluorescein isothiocyanate conjugated goat antibody to B. burgdorferi (Kierkegaard &

Perry Laboratories, Gaithersburg, MD) (Balmforth 2002). None of these lone star ticks (total =

317) were positive for Borrelia.

Relapsing fever group Borrelia

A new species of Borrelia was recently isolated from ticks that engorged on Borrelia

burgdorferi-infected mice (Scoles et al. 2001). This spirochete was positive using the standard

DFA technique (Kirkegaard & Perry Laboratories, Gaithersburg, MD) commonly used to test

ticks for infection with B. burgdorferi. Therefore, many ticks that are DFA-positive for the

Lyme disease spirochete, B. burgdorferi, are in fact infected by this new species of Borrelia.

The new Borrelia species is in the relapsing fever group (not the Lyme borreliosis group)

and is most closely related to the Japanese species B. miyamotoi (Scoles et al. 2001). A

collection of 160 nymphal I. scapularis from Westchester County, NY, yielded 17 nymphs

positive for B. burgdorferi and 4 positive for the new Borrelia species. Similar results were

obtained in Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Jersey, but the new Borrelia was not found in a

collection of I. scapularis from Maryland (Scoles et al. 2001).

Borrelia burgdorferi-positive ticks on Fire Island have been tested by DFA, IFA, and

dark field microscopy, which are relatively non-specific tests. Therefore, some of the positives

could actually have been this new species of Borrelia. It is not known whether this Borrelia sp.

causes illness in humans. Ticks collected from vertebrates on Fire Island are currently being

tested for infection with this spirochete.

Tularemia

Tularemia, sometimes called Rabbit fever, is caused by the bacterium Francisella

tularensis, and is carried by Eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) in the northeastern

U.S. The pathogen can be transmitted to humans via tick bite, by the bite of bloodfeeding insects

(e.g., tabanid flies), or directly from diseased rabbits by contact with infected fluids or aerosols

(Harwood & James 1979). Tick bite is apparently a common mode of transmission in the

western states, while direct contact of hunters with rabbits during skinning is the primary means

of transmission in the eastern U.S.

Tularemia is uncommon in New York State, with the number of reported cases ranging

from zero to two per year (mean = 1 per year, data from 1990-1994, and 2000-2001) (CDC 1991,

1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 2002a, 2003). Ticks that have been implicated in transmission of

tularemia (D. variabilis, A. americanum, and Haemaphysalis leporispalustris) occur on Fire

Island, and F. tularensis was detected by the USFWS Pathology Lab in Madison, WI in a

cottontail that was found dead on Fire Island in 1983 (Northup 1985). Therefore, tularemia can

be contracted on Fire Island, but there have been no cases attributed to tick bite, and the primary

risk is to rabbit hunters handling the cottontails that they hunt.

Q Fever

Q Fever is caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii, which is widely distributed in the

United States in domestic and wild animals (McQuiston & Childs 2002). Transmission to

humans typically results from direct contact with infected sheep or goats, but transmission by

tick bite can also occur. It is not known whether C. burnetii occurs on Fire Island.

Babesiosis

Babesiosis, caused by the protozoan pathogen, Babesia microti, causes a malaria-like

illness in coastal areas of New York and New England (Dammin et al. 1981, Spielman et al.

1985). The natural reservoirs are rodents (especially the white-footed mouse, P. leucopus), and

the primary vector is I. scapularis (Spielman 1976, Spielman et al. 1979). This pathogen has

been reported from eastern Long Island (Benach et al. 1978, Bosler & Schulze 1987) and human

cases have been reported from Davis Park on Fire Island (J.L. Benach, NY State Dept. Health,

personal communication). In view of the abundance of vectors and reservoirs, and the presence

of human cases, babesiosis clearly occurs on Fire Island, but the degree of human risk has not

been assessed.

Mosquito-Borne Diseases

Mosquitoes are flies, order Diptera, in the family Culicidae. Eggs are laid directly on

water (e.g., genus Culex) or on surfaces that will later be flooded (e.g., genus Aedes). In this

report, I use the genus name Aedes (rather than Ochlerotatus for some species), following the

editorial policy of the Journal of Medical Entomology (2005). Larvae hatch from the eggs and

are aquatic filter feeders. They breathe air through terminal siphons. Larvae go through four

instars (the stages between molts) as larvae, then pupate. Pupae are also aquatic, and though

they do not feed, they are active and will wriggle if disturbed. After emerging from the pupal

exoskeleton, adults live in aerial and terrestrial environments. They typically mate, find nectar

meals, sometimes migrate, and then seek hosts. Only females bite vertebrates to obtain blood,

which is necessary for proteins and lipids for egg development. After digestion of the blood

meal and development of eggs, females seek oviposition sites. After oviposition, they seek

additional blood meals. A single female mosquito can go through several cycles of blood

feeding and oviposition in her life. Pathogens are typically acquired in an early feeding, then

transmitted during a later feeding episode. In some cases, pathogens can be transmitted

vertically from mother to offspring (e.g., vertical transmission of LaCrosse Encephalitis virus by

Aedes triseriatus). Additional background material is presented by Mullen & Durden (2002) and

by Service (1993).

West Nile Encephalitis (caused by West Nile Virus, WNV)

WNV was first detected in the Western Hemisphere in 1999, when 62 cases of West Nile

Encephalitis (resulting in 7 deaths) were reported in northern Queens, in New York City. The

virus has since spread throughout most of the continental United States (CDC 2002b), and also to

Mexico and other countries in Central America, as well as to Canada. In 2003, there were 9,862

recorded cases (with 264 deaths) in the U.S. (see CDC website: www.cdc.gov). Originally,

WNV existed in Africa and the Mediterranean regions of Asia and Europe, with occasional

outbreaks in central Europe, Russia, and sub-Saharan Africa (Komar 2000). The strain that was

transported to the U.S. in 1999 is genetically similar to strains found in Israel and Egypt

(Lanciotti et al. 1999). WNV typically does not cause illness in wild birds in the Old World, but

it does affect several North American species with substantial mortality in some corvids

(especially crows and blue jays) and some raptors. WNV infections cause no symptoms or only

minor symptoms in most people, with only about one in 150 infected people showing symptoms,

and with most severe cases (including encephalitis with long term sequelae) in elderly patients.

WNV is maintained in the northeast in an enzootic cycle including birds as reservoirs,

and the mosquitoes Culex pipiens and Cx. restuans (both primarily ornithophilic species) as the

enzootic vectors (Kulasekera et al. 2001). These mosquito species are competent vectors in lab

trials (Turrell et al. 2001, Sardelis et al. 2001, Goddard et al. 2002). The proportion of

mosquitoes ingesting infected blood that later shed virus in their saliva under lab conditions (=

estimated transmission rate, ETR) was 20% for Cx. pipiens and 55% for Cx. restuans (Turrell

2001, Sardelis et al. 2001). The larvae of both species are commonly found in artificial

containers (Means 1987), so these mosquitoes are abundant in urban areas. Birds that are

competent reservoirs include many species that are common in areas with dense human

populations, such as crows, blue jays, robins, house sparrows, and others (Komar et al. 2003).

Since both reservoir bird species and bird-feeding mosquito vector species are common in urban

areas, the enzootic cycle of this virus can build to epizootic levels in areas with high density

human populations. When large numbers of birds are infective, vector-competent mosquitoes

that have broad host ranges, can feed on infective birds (picking up the virus) and later bite

humans. These mosquitoes can act as bridge vectors (serving as a bridge from the enzootic cycle

to humans), sometimes called “epidemic” vectors. The primary bridge vector species in the

northeast is apparently Cx. salinarius (Kulasekera et al. 2001), but other species can potentially

play this role, including Aedes sollicitans and Aedes vexans. In laboratory trials, Cx. salinarius

showed high vector competence (ETR = 34%), Ae. sollicitans showed low to moderate vector

competence (ETR = 11%), and Ae. vexans showed modest vector competence (ETR = 8%)

(Turrell et al. 2001, Sardelis et al. 2001).

All of these five mosquito species are common on Fire Island (Ginsberg & Rohlf 1985,

Lussier 2003), as are several reservoir competent bird species. Therefore. conditions exist for

WNV activity at FIIS. In fact, mosquitoes positive for WNV have been collected at Saltaire and

Cherry Grove (Suffolk County Vector Control, pers comm), at the western portion of Watch Hill

near Davis Park, and recently at the William Floyd Estate (2001 - 2003, FIIS mosquito/WNV

surveillance). Ecological conditions are appropriate for WNV activity, and the virus has been

found in mosquitoes on Fire Island, so appropriate surveillance and management programs are

indicated.

St. Louis Encephalitis (SLE)

SLE is a flavivirus in the Japanese Encephalitis Group (which includes WNV), and was

the only member of that group in the New World before the introduction of WNV. The ecology

of SLE is similar to that of WNV, and it exists in a bird-mosquito cycle with similar vector

species (Harwood & James 1979). Therefore, though it is rare most years, SLE sometimes

causes substantial disease outbreaks, often in large cities (Tsai & Mitchell 1989). Human cases

of SLE were reported in New York state in the 1970’s (Ginsberg 1990), but SLE is rare in New

York, and there were no human cases from 1998 through 2001 (CDC 1999, 2001a, 2002, 2003).

Although SLE could theoretically occur on FIIS, it has not been reported from Fire Island and it

is far more common in the southern, midwestern and western states.

Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE)

EEE is an extremely severe disease, with mortality of human cases in the 50% range, and

roughly half of the surviving patients with long term neurological deficits (Tsai & Monath 1987,

Morris 1988). Fortunately, it is quite rare, with an average of about 5 human cases per year,

nationwide (CDC 2003). The enzootic transmission cycle of EEE virus involves mosquito

vectors and bird reservoirs. Unlike WNV, however, the primary enzootic vector is Culiseta

melanura (Chamberlain 1958, Jamnback et al. 1965), which breeds in freshwater swamps and

not in urban areas. Therefore, the enzootic cycle of EEE virus occurs in swamp habitat, not near

human population centers. For EEE virus to infect humans, a buildup to epizootic levels in birds

must occur in swamps at the same time that large populations of potential bridge vectors are

present. Potential bird reservoirs include such species as robins, catbirds, and possibly yellow-

shafted flickers (Bast et al. 1973, Srihonge et al. 1980). Possible bridge vector mosquito species

include Coquillettidia perturbans (Boromisa et al. 1987), Ae. sollicitans (Crans 1977), and Ae.

vexans (Wallis et al. 1960). The bridge vectors must pick up the infection, then during a

subsequent blood meal either bite a person who has entered the swamp, or leave the swamp

habitat and bite a person elsewhere. This requirement for several factors to occur at the same

time, in sites distant from human population centers, explains to a large extent why EEE is so

rare in people.

The enzootic and bridge vector species occur on Fire Island, but the enzootic vector, Cs.

melanura, has rarely been collected. The freshwater swamp habitat of this species is found in the

Sunken Forest. In a joint NPS/CDC surveillance program in 1983-1985, a total of 34,928

mosquitoes were tested for EEE. None were positive. Only 3 Cs. melanura were collected, all

at the Sunken Forest. In contrast, populations of the most common potential bridge vector

species, Ae. sollicitans, are highest at the east end of Fire Island where the salt marsh habitat of

this species is common, several km east of the Sunken Forest. Therefore, the results of the

NPS/CDC surveillance program suggested that ecological conditions on Fire Island were not

conducive to human risk of EEE infection. In fact, EEE has never been isolated on Fire Island,

and there have been no confirmed human cases of EEE on Fire Island or on Long Island (CDC

1999, 2001a, 2002a, 2003, McGowan et al. 1973, Morris et al. 1973, Zaki 1979).

EEE has occurred in domestic animals such as horses on Long Island (Bast et al. 1973).

Also, EEE activity has been detected in Cs. melanura in swamps along the Carmans River,

several miles north of Smith Point (Jamnback et al. 1965). Ae. sollicitans emerging at the

Hospital Point salt marsh on Fire Island seek blood meals along Fire Island, and a small

percentage move to Long Island, where they are abundant in southern Shirley within about 0.8

mi of Smith Point (Ginsberg & Rohlf 1985, Ginsberg 1986). These mosquitoes disperse into the

Mastic-Shirley area, and many undoubtedly eventually reach the swamp areas along the Carmans

River where EEE activity has been reported. Above the southern 0.8 mi area they do not

predominate, and are mixed with mosquitoes from numerous source areas (Ginsberg & Rohlf

1985). Nevertheless, surveillance to detect this possibility is appropriate.

Finally, small populations of Cs. melanura at the Sunken Forest are unlikely to result in

epizootic activity in local birds. However, if Cs. melanura populations were to increase

substantially, epizootic activity would be possible. If a potential bridge vector (e.g., Ae. vexans)

was abundant at the time, transmission to mammals could potentially occur. Unlikely thought

this scenario might be, surveillance in the Sunken Forest area is appropriate. If Cs. melanura

populations were to increase substantially, then additional surveillance, including testing of

mosquitoes for EEE virus, would be indicated.

LaCrosse Encephalitis (LAC)

LAC virus is the most common of several strains of California Group Encephalitis (CGE)

viruses, most of which do not cause illness in humans (LeDuc 1987). LAC (which was named

after LaCrosse, WI) is most common in the upper midwestern states (Grimstad 1988). The

primary reservoirs are mammals, and the primary vector is Ae. triseriatus, a cavity-dwelling

mosquito species that commonly breeds in discarded tires (Means 1979). The virus is passed

vertically from mother to offspring mosquitoes. Ae. triseriatus is present on Long Island

(Guirgis & Sanzone 1978), but human cases of LAC encephalitis are rare in New York, and none

were reported from 1998 through 2001 (CDC 1999, 2001a, 2002a, 2003). The NPS/CDC

surveillance program in 1983-1985 yielded one pool of Ae. sollicitans positive for a strain of

CGE virus, but the strain was not identified. The relative rarity of Ae. triseriatus on Fire Island

(Lussier 2003), and the lack of piles of discarded tires, argue against the likelihood of LAC

becoming a problem on Fire Island.

Cache Valley Virus

Cache Valley Virus is a bunyavirus associated with fetal death in sheep and other animals

in North America (Calisher et al. 1986). It rarely affects humans, but a few cases of human

illness associated with infection have been reported. A Bunyamwera group virus, probably

Cache Valley Virus, was isolated by the New York State Department of Health lab from a pool

of Ae. sollicitans from Fire Island collected in September 1993 (M. Lawrence, pers. comm.).

This virus has occasionally been isolated from Suffolk County, NY, in previous years.

Malaria

Malaria is the most common parasitic disease of tropical areas worldwide (Wernsdorfer

& McGregor 1988), causing hundreds of millions of cases and roughly two million deaths each

year (Martens & Hall 2000). It was formerly common in North America as well, including New

York state, but has been largely eradicated by modification of wetland habitats (channelizing

marsh and swamp habitats associated with larger bodies of water and converting natural

wetlands into farm ponds), spraying mosquitoes with insecticides, and treating malaria patients.

Malaria is caused by protozoa of the genus Plasmodium and is transmitted by mosquitoes of the

genus Anopheles (Harwood & James 1979). Human malaria is not a zoonosis, but exists in a

human-mosquito transmission cycle in the tropics. The major species that could act as vectors in

the northeastern U.S. are An. quadrimaculatus and An. punctipennis. Both of these species are

present, but are not common on Fire Island (Lussier 2003).

Since 1995, there have been 7 to 17 human cases of malaria each year in Suffolk County,

virtually all imported (CDC 2000). Typically, visitors or immigrants from malarious parts of the

world arrive with the infection, either before they show symptoms, or after they have recovered

(some species of Plasmodium have stages that remain in the human liver while the patient is

asymptomatic, and then cause relapses after long periods of time). On rare occasions, a person

who was infected outside of the U.S. and then travels to North America is bitten by an Anopheles

mosquito, which acquires the infection and later transmits it to humans in the U.S. This occurred

on Long Island in 1999, resulting in 2 human cases of malaria acquired locally (CDC 2000).

This type of local transmission occurs occasionally, but is rare in New York. The relative rarity

of An. quadrimaculatus and An. punctipennis on Fire Island, suggest that while this scenario is

possible, it is unlikely on the barrier island.

VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE MONITORING AT FIRE ISLAND NATIONAL

SEASHORE

Tick-Borne Diseases

The park sponsored a “Lyme Fest” each August during several years in the 1980’s, in

which park staff had blood drawn for testing at Dr. R. Dattwyler’s lab at SUNY Stony Brook for

antibodies to Lyme disease spirochetes. Initial results showed park staff seroconverting at a rate

of approximately 12 % each year. The park initiated a tick and Lyme disease awareness and

precaution program, based on the results of a study of tick and spirochete distribution on the

barrier island (Ginsberg 1990), and frequent talks by local experts (J. Benach, R. Dattwyler, H.S.

Ginsberg), signage, and precautions instituted among park staff. Yearly seroconversion rates

subsequently decreased substantially, and were near zero in most years. This decline apparently

resulted partly from greater awareness and avoidance of tick bites, and partly from rapid

recognition of Lyme symptoms by park staff, resulting in timely treatment of early-stage

infections.

The effectiveness of the park’s public education program (including displays, signage,

and discussion in interpretive programs) on Lyme disease incidence in visitors to the park is not

known, partly because of the difficulty in tracking visitors and in determining whether exposure

to the ticks occurred on Fire Island or elsewhere.

Mosquito-Borne Diseases

A monitoring program for EEE was conducted by FIIS staff in conjunction with the CDC

from 1983-1985. A total of 34,928 mosquitoes were tested, primarily Ae. sollicitans, and none

were positive for EEE. One pool of Ae. sollicitans was positive for a California Group Virus, but

the serotype was not determined. The California Group includes about a dozen serotypes, most

of which do not cause illness in humans (LeDuc 1987). Since this initial program, and the

publication of the concurrent mosquito dispersal study (Ginsberg & Rohlf 1985, Ginsberg 1986)

there have been no pesticide applications for mosquito/EEE control at FIIS, and there have been

no human cases of EEE.

Active monitoring resumed in 1998, with a plan that included mosquito

population monitoring and EEE surveillance in trapped mosquitoes, with a graded management

response to increasing levels of transmission risk. When WNV appeared in New York City in

1999, the plan was modified to include surveillance for WNV activity. The “Mosquito

surveillance and management protocol” has been updated each year since, and the 2003 protocol

is provided in Appendix 1. The park also produces a “Mosquito Action Plan” (MAP) each year,

which provides detailed operational instructions for carrying out the protocol. The 2003 MAP is

provided in Appendix 2.

Surveillance results are summarized after the mosquito season each year, and presented

in a mosquito surveillance and management report. The 2003 report is

provided in Appendix 3. Previous years’ reports are available from the Resource

Management office at FIIS.

RELATIONSHIPS WITH SUFFOLK COUNTY, NEW YORK STATE, AND FEDERAL

AGENCIES

Fire Island National Seashore maintains active working relationships with Suffolk

County Vector Control, the New York State Department of Health, the Centers for Disease

Control, and the U.S. Geological Survey. The park’s mosquito surveillance and management

protocol was initially written by an expert from the USGS (Dr. H.S. Ginsberg) and completed

with comments and modifications suggested by the National Park Service, CDC, New York

State Department of Health, and Suffolk County Vector Control. The USGS scientist

occasionally visits the park to provide training and to fine-tune the protocol. The park’s

mosquito surveillance and management program involves trapping and sorting of mosquitoes by

park staff, and transporting of specimens to the Suffolk County Vector Control lab, where the

mosquito pools are packed and shipped to the New York State Health Department lab in Albany,

NY, for viral testing. The Suffolk County Vector Control entomologist, Dr. S.R. Campbell,

interacts with the USGS scientist, and provides on-site consultation for park staff on practical

matters related to mosquito surveillance.

Mosquito surveillance results (from trapping and larval sampling), and the results of viral

testing, are available to the national seashore, Suffolk County Vector Control, and NY State

Health Department. Results are also shared with appropriate experts from the USGS, who

provide technical advice on surveillance and management. When surveillance suggests possible

increasing risk of vector-borne disease transmission, a consultation process is initiated that

includes the national seashore, Suffolk County Vector Control, and USGS experts. If further

consultation is needed additional expertise is requested, including consultation with the CDC,

Suffolk County Health Department, New York State Department of Health, etc.

Fire Island National Seashore maintains an active and congenial working relationship

with Suffolk County Vector Control. Environmentally-benign larval management procedures,

including sanitation of debris such as buckets and cups, manipulation of man-made containers

that hold water, larval management in artificial containers, and maintenance of facilities to

minimize artificial mosquito larval habitat, are actively performed by park staff. Also, an open

marsh water management (OMWM) project was performed at the William Floyd Estate. This

project was a cooperative effort between Suffolk County Vector Control, Fire Island National

Seashore and others, and has apparently substantially reduced production of salt marsh

mosquitoes (Aedes sollicitans) at the William Floyd Estate. However, because of the differing

mandates of the two agencies, conflicts inevitably arise. Suffolk County Vector Control is

charged with managing nuisance mosquito biting activity and arboviral disease transmission in

Suffolk County, NY. Fire Island National Seashore is charged with preserving the natural

resources of the National Seashore for the enjoyment of current and future generations.

Therefore, interventions for mosquito control are restricted within FIIS to avoid negative effects

on the natural systems in the park. Interventions that could adversely affect native species are

permitted only when there is a clear risk to human health. Therefore, interventions (such as

pesticide applications) that are routinely performed by Suffolk County Vector Control, are not

permitted in the national seashore unless a public health threat is demonstrated. The park’s

mosquito surveillance and management protocol was designed to identify conditions under

which there is a threat to human health, and which would call for active mosquito management

within the national seashore. However, because of the complexity of the natural transmission

cycles of mosquito-borne viruses, considerable interpretation of surveillance data is required to

determine whether an imminent threat to human health exists. The consultation process

established in the mosquito surveillance and management protocol is designed to promote

discussion and mutually-agreed interpretation of surveillance results. Ultimately, the judgement

on whether to allow pesticide applications within park boundaries lies with the park

superintendent.

FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS

The vector borne disease with most human cases on Fire Island on a year-to-year basis is

clearly Lyme disease. The Lyme spirochete is endemic in the tick and wildlife populations on

Fire Island, so the risk of human exposure is chronic. Public education, personal protection

against tick bite, prompt medical attention for infected patients, and targeted interventions (e.g.,

landscaping to eliminate tick exposure around dwellings) can minimize the number of human

cases.

Among mosquito-borne diseases, syndromes resulting from infection with WNV are

most likely to cause human illness on Fire Island. Mosquitoes infected with WNV have been

collected at Saltaire, Cherry Grove, near Watch Hill, and recently at the William Floyd Estate.

In contrast to the endemic status of Lyme spirochetes, WNV apparently arises when ecological

conditions are appropriate for viral amplification in birds and mosquitoes, and so its occurrence

is focal and episodic. Therefore, management of WNV must be based on surveillance, with

increasing levels of management in response to increasing levels of human disease risk. The

mosquito surveillance and management protocols (Appendices 1 & 2) serve this function at

present. In the future, our understanding of the transmission dynamics of WNV in this area, and

of the relationship between epizootic activity and human disease, is expected to increase. The

FIIS surveillance and management protocols should be updated with this new knowledge to

more efficiently lower disease risk while protecting the natural resources of Fire Island National

Seashore.

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APPENDIX 1

2003 Mosquito Surveillance and Management Protocol Fire Island National Seashore

The purpose of this plan is to present a surveillance protocol to monitor mosquito

populations from Fire Island National Seashore and to test mosquitoes for evidence of arboviral

infection. Surveillance efforts focus on possible mosquito infection with Eastern Equine

Encephalitis virus (EEE) and West Nile Virus (WNV). Fire Island National Seashore will

carry out a sanitation program to reduce artificial Culex larval habitat on lands

administered by the national seashore, and will institute this surveillance and management

protocol to minimize any risk of viral transmission. The plan outlines appropriate additional

actions if data indicate increasing risk of mosquito-borne disease.

In light of continued uncertainty over how West Nile Virus and other mosquito-borne

diseases will manifest themselves in the Western Hemisphere this year, proactive management is

again proposed for 2003 and will follow very similar protocols to those used in the last four

years. These guidelines will continue to be reexamined in subsequent years, based on increased

knowledge of and experience with arboviruses in this area. The need for responses based on

unpredictable trends in the spread of viruses requires that a consultation process be established

that will allow appropriate responses to changes in mosquito populations and viral infection

patterns as they occur. This consultation will include NPS, other DOI, CDC, NY State, Suffolk

County, and/or local experts. The consultation process can range from communication between

park staff and local, state, or federal experts via telephone, FAX, or e-mail, to scheduled

meetings and site visits, depending on the degree of risk of local viral transmission.

Criteria for active management within the park:

Presence of WNV in or near the park, or of EEE in the park, or extraordinarily persistent

and/or high levels of EEE infection in mosquitoes near the park, could trigger interventions

within the park if conditions are such that:

1) the conditions strongly suggest disease risk to humans;

2) the risk of disease transmission would be substantially lowered by the intervention;

and

3) mosquito management within the park is superior to other available approaches to

manage disease risk.

The decision to apply mosquito management interventions will depend on the intensity and

persistence of viral activity, proximity of viral activity to mosquito emergence sites within Fire

Island National Seashore, time of year, mosquito population levels, etc. Because these

conditions vary from year to year, and cannot be predicted, this consultation process will be used

to determine whether interventions within the park are warranted, on a case by case basis.

Interventions can include closing portions of the park to the public, mosquito

management methods such as applications of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) or Bacillus

sphaericus (Bs) to prevent emergences, or adulticide applications to areas with high levels of

adult Culex spp.or Aedes (formerly Aedes) sollicitans. The final decision on all management

interventions within Fire Island National Seashore, including the William Floyd Estate, will be

made by the Park Superintendent in accordance with NPS Management Policies.

Specific criteria for level of surveillance and management:

Three levels of action are proposed: (1) Surveillance and Education, (2) Detection and

Public Notification, and (3) Mosquito Management. Based on monitoring data, guidelines are

presented for deciding what criteria would result in a move to the next higher level of

surveillance and management. Arrangements to send mosquitoes for viral testing should be

completed by the end of June at the latest. Similarly, arrangements for pesticide applications or

other management interventions (to be applied if necessary, according to this protocol) should

be completed by the end of June. These arrangements will include permit approval, arranging

for applicators, etc. Decisions to move to higher levels will be made by park staff, in

consultation with appropriate experts.

Level (1) - Surveillance and Education

Education consists of park brochures, interpretive programs, etc., to inform the public

about mosquitoes, their roles in natural systems, potential disease transmission, and associated

surveillance and management programs. Basic surveillance consists of passive surveillance for

dead birds, and mosquito monitoring including larval monitoring with pint dippers and adult

monitoring using CDC miniature light traps baited with carbon dioxide, and gravid traps.

The gravid traps are intended to sample gravid Culex spp., and to be sensitive indicators

of the presence of WNV. The CDC traps are intended to sample host-seeking female mosquitoes

of several species (including Aedes sollicitans and Culex spp.) to provide broader surveillance of

viral infection in potentially human-biting mosquitoes. Therefore, gravid traps will be placed in

or near potential Culex larval habitat, and CDC traps will be placed at sites where mosquitoes are

likely to encounter humans, or between mosquito breeding sites and potential human-encounter

sites. Guidance for trap placement will be obtained from the report "Distribution and dispersal of

mosquitoes, Fire Island National Seashore" (H.S. Ginsberg & F.J. Rohlf. 1985. Report #OSS-86-

1, National Park Service, Boston, MA) and by consultation with mosquito biologists.

One gravid trap will be placed near the freshwater wetlands in the secondary dune area at

Hospital Point, and one CDC trap will be placed in the woods in the Smith Shores area between

the Hospital Point marsh and the Smith Point Ranger Station. At the William Floyd Estate

(WFE), one gravid trap will be placed in moist woodland habitat and one gravid trap will be

placed near the salt marsh/woods border. Additional traps may be placed at any freshwater

swamp sites that have potential for Culiseta melanura breeding.

Additional traps will be set at other sites along Fire Island, as follows:

One gravid trap will be placed near the Watch Hill/Davis Park border and another placed

near the park houses at Watch Hill. One CDC trap will be placed at Sailors Haven, one gravid

trap will be placed in the Sunken Forest, and one gravid trap will be placed in or near wetlands in

the Lighthouse tract.

This initial distribution of traps may be modified based on surveillance results. For

example, if there are positive results in birds or mosquitoes in an area, additional traps can be

added to this area to get more complete information about the local epizootiology of the virus.

Traps will be set once each week, June – September (traps at different sites may be

placed on different nights, to facilitate timely setting and collecting of traps). Trap catches will

be sorted to species, and the number of Culex spp., Aedes sollicitans -- and other mosquito

species as time permits -- will be counted. During large emergences, trap counts and species

composition will be estimated using appropriate techniques.

Virus testing: mosquitoes captured in the surveillance traps will be sorted to species and

placed in pools using appropriate techniques. A pool will consist of up to 50 mosquitoes of a

single species from a single trap (pool size is recommended by testing lab). Pools of Culex spp.

and Aedes sollicitans will be sent to the laboratory for detection of WNV and EEE virus by cell

culture, or other technique approved by Park staff. Pools of other species can also be sent for

viral testing, at the discretion of Park staff.

Larval monitoring: mosquito larvae will be monitored using a pint dipper. Sampling

sites will be selected by reference to Ginsberg & Rohlf (1985) and/or by consultation with

mosquito biologists, and modified by current experience. At least 25 dips will be taken at each

site, the larvae counted, and representative specimens returned to the lab to confirm

identifications (see Ginsberg & Rohlf 1985), as time permits. Larvae will be sampled at sites

near the gravid traps at least once per month in the absence of WNV. Should virus be found in

the seashore, larvae will be sampled as often as recommended by mosquito experts.

Dead birds: passive monitoring for dead birds will include alerting park rangers,

interpreters, and resource management staff to be on the lookout for dead birds. Reports of bird

mortality will be investigated by resource management staff, and candidates for possible viral

infection will be collected and submitted for testing using a protocol developed by the park in

accordance with guidelines from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Centers for Disease

Control, New York State and the Suffolk County Health Department.

Criteria for move to Level (2):

Substantial mosquito trap catches will result in a move to Level (2). The term "substantial" is

defined as a catch of over 1,000 female mosquitoes in a carbon dioxide-baited CDC light trap

from Fire Island, or of over 100 individuals in a trap on the William Floyd Estate. Also,

detection of WNV or EEE virus in birds, mammals, or mammal-feeding mosquitoes on Fire

Island or at mainland Long Island sites within five miles of Fire Island or of the William Floyd

Estate will trigger an increase to Level (2) surveillance. Detection of EEE virus in bird-feeding

mosquitoes (e.g., Cs. melanura) will trigger a move to Level (2) if there are signs of higher than

normal prevalence (e.g., at least three pools of Cs. melanura positive for EEE within five miles

of Smith Point or of the William Floyd Estate).

Level (2) - Detection and Public Notification

The park will notify Suffolk County Vector Control of the results of the surveillance

program. If WNV or EEE is detected within the park, visitors to the park will also be notified

about mosquito densities, possibility of viral infection (realistic assessment), and self-protection

methods they can use to minimize the number of mosquito bites. Arrangements will be

finalized for pesticide application in case conditions warrant such intervention (this should be

coordinated with Suffolk County Vector Control). Consultation will be initiated between Fire

Island National Seashore and Suffolk County Vector Control, New York State Health

Department, Centers for Disease Control, U.S. Department of the Interior, and/or experts from

universities or other institutions to guide the Park Superintendent on potential courses of action.

Larval management in artificial sites will be intensified and surveillance will continue.

Criteria for move to Level (3):

Detection of WNV in a potential human biter (e.g., Culex salinarius or Ae. sollicitans), or

of EEE in a potential epidemic vector (e.g., Ae. sollicitans, Coquillettidia perturbans, Aedes

vexans) in the park will trigger the consultation process to assess the risk of disease transmission.

In general, single positive mosquito pools will result in intensified surveillance (increased

trapping and larval sampling), and multiple positive pools will result in an increase to level (3).

Signs of increasing WNV epizootic activity (e.g., positive birds followed by positive mosquito

pools, or multiple and increasing numbers of positive birds over a two-week period) can result in

an increase to level (3), based on the consultation process. Detection of WNV or EEE in

potential epidemic vectors outside but near the park, persistent high levels of EEE in Cs.

melanura at sites within 5 miles of the park (at least three EEE isolations at a site in consecutive

samples taken within one month) at the same time as evidence of an imminent emergence of Ae.

sollicitans, or other evidence of EEE activity (e.g., animal cases) within 5 miles of the park will

trigger the consultation process to assess the risk of disease transmission. The consultation can

result in an increase to Level (3) if such action is deemed appropriate by the Park Superintendent

after consultation with the appropriate experts and in accordance with NPS Management

Policies.

Level (3) - Mosquito Management

The approach to mosquito management will depend on the nature of the disease risk, as

projected from the surveillance data. Detection of EEE activity by PCR or ELISA is not, by

itself, sufficient evidence of EEE activity to trigger mosquito management within the park. EEE

activity must be detected by cell culture, or by other suitably rigorous technique approved by

park staff, before mosquito management is initiated in the park. Detection methods for WNV

will be based on Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommendations and approved by park

staff.

(3a) Epidemic vector infected with EEE in Fire Island National Seashore

i. EEE detected in Ae. sollicitans (or other potential epidemic vector)

on Fire Island.

Intervention: Application of adulticide (resmethrin, permethrin,

or other material approved by park staff) to Fire Island, if

appropriate according to consultation process. Pesticide will be applied to

the site of viral identification and to the barrier island for distances in both directions

from the identification site(s) determined by the consultation process, and stopping at

appropriate natural borders. Multiple viral isolations can result in more extensive

adulticide application, determined by the consultation process, based on specifics of viral

spread. Similarly, single isolations at remote sites can result in less extensive, finely-

targeted application(s). Larviciding can occur in natural areas with high larval densities

of potential vector species.

ii. EEE detected in Ae. sollicitans (or other potential epidemic

vector) at the William Floyd Estate.

Intervention: Application of adulticide to the William Floyd

Estate, if appropriate according to consultation process.

iii. Potential human vector mosquito species positive for WNV in an

area with previously-demonstrated epizootic activity (previous positive

mosquito pools or multiple positive vertebrates)

Intervention: Based on consultation process. A single mosquito pool

positive for WNV would typically result in increased trapping to assess

risk of human disease. Multiple positive pools in an area with previously-

demonstrated epizootic activity could result in adulticide and/or larvicide

application, as in (3a) section i.

(3b) Multiple WNV or EEE detections in vertebrate(s) in Fire Island National

Seashore

Intervention: Based on consultation process. Interventions can include increased

mosquito trapping and testing, and increased larval management and/or

adulticiding when there is evidence of intensive epizootic activity (e.g., numerous

or increasing numbers of positive birds within a two-week period, or positive

birds coupled with positive mosquito pools), especially when accompanied by

high mosquito numbers (e.g., Culex in carbon dioxide-baited CDC trap catch >

500 females/trap; Ae. sollicitans in carbon dioxide-baited CDC trap catch > 2,500

females/trap).

(3c) WNV or EEE detected outside but near the park, or in enzootic vectors within

the park, with current or imminent emergence of epidemic vector species within

the park.

i. WNV: Multiple evidence of WNV in mosquitoes or vertebrates within

two miles of Fire Island National Seashore can trigger adulticide application within the

park if populations of Culex spp. are high (trap catches >500 females in carbon dioxide

baited CDC light trap on Fire Island, >50 females in CDC trap at WFE) or of Ae.

sollicitans are high (trap catches >2,500 females in CDC trap on Fire Island, >250

females in CDC trap at WFE) in park areas within two miles of the viral

isolations. Location and extent of application will be based on consultation process.

Response at lower adult densities, especially with evidence of imminent emergence from

larval samples, will be based on the consultation process, and can include larval

management.

ii. EEE: Evidence of EEE within 5 miles of Fire Island National Seashore,

or in Cs. melanura within the park, will trigger the consultation process.

Park staff will contact the CDC (initially by phone, FAX, or e-mail, with

more comprehensive consultation only if necessary), NY State, Suffolk County, U.S.

Department of Interior, university, and/or other experts as needed. If conditions warrant

(according to the CDC and in consultation with other appropriate experts, to lower the

risk of human disease) appropriate interventions can be applied in accordance with NPS

Management Policies.

Howard S. Ginsberg, Ph.D.

USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center

2003

APPENDIX 2

2003 Mosquito Action Plan (Map) Fire Island National Seashore (8/12/03)

Reviewed By _______________________________ Date _____________

(Deputy Superintendent)

Approved By _______________________________ Date _____________

(Superintendent)

Introduction

Fire Island is a 32-mile long barrier beach approximately 1-5 miles south of Long Island. Fire

Island National Seashore (FIIS) is located in the middle 26 miles of the island. The park has

concurrent jurisdiction with New York State that encompasses 1,000 feet into the Atlantic Ocean

and 4,000 feet into the Great South Bay including the islands adjacent to the bay shoreline.

There are 17 communities within the boundaries of the park, 13 of which are within the West

District. There are approximately 4,100 homes on Fire Island all within the park's boundary,

including two incorporated villages, which have their own governing bodies. Of the 4,100

homes, approximately 350-500 of the residences are year round. Visitation on a peak season

weekend day can be as high as 100,000 within the park areas and the communities combined.

Fire Island National Seashore has the responsibility to preserve the park natural resources. It is a

responsibility of the park to monitor park mosquito populations, manage park natural processes,

and assist in the protection of visitor and resident health. In 1985, based on research on mosquito

dispersal, the park determined that the impact of mosquitoes in the federal wilderness area was

minimal on nearby Long Island south shore communities.

In the late 1990's public concern relating to Eastern Equine Encephalitis and West Nile Virus,

both diseases related to mosquito populations, prompted the park to initiate mosquito monitoring.

To further limit the possibility of a major incident and to ensure a quick and rational response

should a mosquito-borne disease be found in this area, the park has developed the following

Mosquito Action Plan (MAP).

Fire Island National Seashore West Nile Virus Action Plan

Pre-Season Preparations

During this stage the park receives low to moderate visitation and mosquito activity is dormant

to low. The primary goal of this stage is to prepare for the season ahead.

1. All Stage Three Incident (see below) Caches should be checked to ensure that personal

protective equipment (PPE) is maintained or replaced from the previous year. Those employees

that are incidental responders in the field will have access to Tyvek tick suits, head nets, gloves

and insect repellant at each ranger station in the park (William Floyd Estate, Smith Point, Watch

Hill, Sailor’s Haven, Lighthouse). These items are stored in locked, weather-resistant caches at

each station. Caches will be checked and restocked as necessary. See Appendix D for equipment

cache information.

2. All dead bird transport coolers (see below) should be checked to ensure that the equipment

and protocols are maintained and current. Each ranger station in the park has a cooler with PPE

and other items needed to collect and transport dead birds in accordance with state and federal

guidelines.

3. Park employees should be informed of the preparations underway and educated about disease

prevention including sanitation and personal protection. The education program in the park

should be started at the first staff meeting of the New Year (just to remind everyone of what is on

the way). Employees should know how the disease is transmitted, how to prevent breeding areas

from forming around the workplace or at home, and how to protect themselves. All employees

should also be taught to recognize the signs and symptoms of West Nile Virus (see appendix A).

4. All park areas should be checked to identify any potential artificial freshwater mosquito

breeding areas. Work orders should be generated to clean up these areas. This should include

evaluating park vehicle access roads (Burma Road, road to facilities, etc.). Those areas that have

significant rutting that retain standing water longer then 2-3 days may need to be graded or filled.

Sanitation actions should continue until October, when mosquito breeding activity ceases (see

Appendix E).

5. Park Management Protocols, educational/outreach documents (mosquito brochure,

interpretive programs), and other brochures and handouts should be prepared and management

plans finalized. Education should consist of brochures, interpretive programs, press releases or

other means to inform the public.

6. Permit approvals for pesticide applications or other management interventions should be

obtained and should include all possible regulated chemicals for mosquito management use.

This is done in partnership with Suffolk County Vector Control. Permit applications are made to

the National Park Service Integrated Pest Management coordinator for FIIS.

7. The Mosquito Action Plan (MAP) should be prepared in accordance with the Mosquito

Surveillance and Management Protocol. This plan should include a protocol for handling dead

birds and should be reviewed and approved by the MAP committee.

8. Adult mosquito trapping sites and larval sampling sites should be chosen in consultation with

park experts and scientists at the United States Geological Survey – Biological Research

Division.

9. Arrangements should be made with Suffolk County Vector Control or other agencies for

transport and testing of mosquitoes, dead birds, etc.

Stage One – Active Surveillance And Education

This stage begins in the summer when park visitation becomes moderate to high and mosquito

activity is moderate to very high. The park will begin trapping mosquitoes and preparing pools

of mosquitoes to be tested, in accordance with guidelines provided by the park’s Mosquito

Surveillance and Management Protocol. This will entail close work with Suffolk County Vector

Control.

1. Education efforts by the park should be fully implemented. Interpretive programs, radio

announcements and press releases should be used to educate staff and the general public. Park

brochures, handouts, and other sources of information should be distributed to all the visitor

centers and, where appropriate and workable, in Fire Island communities. Employees should be

sufficiently knowledgeable to provide residents and visitors with accurate information (or know

where they can get it). However, it is critical that all employees realize that the Superintendent

or his/her designee is the only one speaking to the media for the park.

2. The protocol for handling dead birds should be distributed and promoted. Fire Island

employees, residents and visitors should understand what to do if they find a dead bird.

3. Mosquitoes will be collected once a week from each of nine traps set out at the William Floyd

Estate and from Smith Point to the Lighthouse. These mosquitoes will be transported live back

to PMF, where they will be sorted into the main vector species and stored on dry ice until

delivered to Suffolk County Vector Control as soon as practicable but before Friday noon.

4. Dead birds will be collected in accordance with the park’s protocol (see Appendix B).

Stage Two – Detection And Public Notification

This stage occurs when routine mosquito monitoring indicates a potential emergence of adult

mosquitoes, or West Nile Virus or Eastern Equine Encephalitis has been detected in or within 2

miles of the park. Visitation is probably high and mosquito activity high to very high. The park

will notify Suffolk County of a potential emergence. If disease is detected in or near the park,

visitors will be notified, informed of the (realistic) potential for contracting disease and advised

to use protection.

1. Field responders should be reminded of the resources available to them (equipment caches

etc.)

2. In the event that disease is detected, education efforts by the park should be intensified. More

frequent interpretive talks, community outreach and active distribution of brochures or handouts

by rangers are a few ways to do this. Press releases should be generated (see Appendix C).

3. In the event that disease is detected, the park will consult with the Centers for Disease Control

(CDC), Suffolk County Vector Control, New York State Health Department, New York State

Department of Environmental Conservation and other authorities. Together with these agencies,

the park will decide on the best course of action to minimize the risk to human health, and

determine the possible environmental impact of any action taken.

4. In the event that disease is detected, arrangements for pesticide use should be finalized. The

park should work closely with Suffolk County Vector Control and any other involved parties to

assure that, should the need arise, application of pesticides is done within the guidelines

approved by NPS, CDC, EPA and DEC.

Stage Three – Mosquito Management

This stage will be triggered by the detection of disease in more than one group (“pool”) of

mosquitoes or by detection of disease in both mosquitoes and birds, or in increasing numbers of

birds. Mosquito management could take several forms: application of adulticide to the

identification site, application of larvicide to breeding areas, and/or closing areas of the park to

the public.

1. All of the actions listed above for Stage Two should be immediately implemented, if not

already done.

2. The park’s response will conform to the Suffolk County Unified Command (SCUC) structure

and the NPS Incident Command System (ICS). Park headquarters will be the Command Center,

with supply, public relations and administration functions.

3. The Superintendent/Incident Commander will close areas of the park as needed or

appropriate. This may impact large areas of the park such as a marina or the William Floyd

Estate, or just specific trails.

4. There should be a daily radio brief to the staff as part of the incident command process.

Public information efforts should be coordinated with the CDC and SCUC to prevent duplication

of work and assure that information is consistent.

Post-Incident Stage

This stage is the evaluation period to immediately follow a Stage Three incident.

1. If Stage Three was reached, each response team leader, district ranger or other supervisor

should hold discussions with his/her staff and be prepared to make a presentation to the Incident

Commander and overhead no later that one pay period after the Stage Three incident has

concluded. The Incident Commander and overhead team should be prepared to hold a

supervisor’s critique based on the above time line.

2. The superintendent will schedule an all-employee staff meeting no later than two pay periods

after the Incident Commander concludes his/her critique.

3. The park management team should quickly evaluate current conditions and a return to the

appropriate stage should begin immediately.

Post- Season Wrap-Up

At this point visitation is low and mosquito activity is low to dormant. The main purpose of this

stage is to evaluate the past season and clean and store all equipment.

1. A final report will be written, detailing the results of the season’s mosquito surveillance and

management activities.

2. All monitoring equipment will be cleaned and put into safe storage.

Prepared by the FIIS Mosquito Action Plan Committee (in alphabetical order):

James Ebert, William Flanagan, Steve Henderson, Marie Lawrence, Jay Lippert, Richard

Stavdal.

Appendix A (of the 2003 Mosquito Action Plan)

Questions and answers on West Nile virus/encephalitis for employees and visitors of Fire

Island National Seashore

What is West Nile Encephalitis?

"Encephalitis" means an inflammation of the brain and can be caused by bacteria and viruses,

including viruses transmitted by mosquitoes. West Nile Encephalitis is an infection of the brain

caused by West Nile Virus (WNV), a virus commonly found in Africa, West Asia, and the

Middle East. West Nile Virus is also found in southern Europe. It was found in the Western

Hemisphere for the first time in 1999. It is closely related to St. Louis Encephalitis virus, also

found in the United States.

How big a threat is West Nile Virus to the health and safety of NPS employees and visitors?

Since its introduction into the Western Hemisphere, West Nile Virus has proven to be most

serious in the elderly and people who are already weakened by other ailments. Since 1999, when

the virus first appeared in the Northeast, it has spread westward. The Centers for Disease

Control reports that in 2002, WNV occurred in 44 states with 284 fatalities. People most likely

to develop serious symptoms are the elderly and those who are already ill. By using insect

repellents when engaged in outside activities, the risk of contracting West Nile Virus can be

greatly lowered. For maximum protection, a repellent containing 33% DEET is recommended.

Follow the label directions carefully, especially when using DEET on children.

What is the basic transmission cycle for the West Nile virus?

Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on virus infected birds. After an incubation period

infected mosquitoes can transmit West Nile virus to humans and or other animals. Disease

symptoms do not develop in everyone that is bitten by an infected mosquito. Elderly and

physically weak or ill people are more likely to develop symptoms.

How long has West Nile virus been in the United States?

It is not known how long the virus has been in the U.S., but the Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention (CDC) scientists first detected it in the eastern U.S. during the summer of 1999.

How do people get West Nile Virus?

Transmission comes through the bite of a mosquito (primarily the Culex spp.) that is infected

with the West Nile Virus. The virus is located in the mosquito's salivary glands. The virus is not

known to be transmitted by casual contact between people, but in a small number of cases it has

been transmitted by blood transfusions, organ transplants, breastfeeding and even during

pregnancy from mother to baby.

What are the symptoms of West Nile Virus?

Most people who are infected with WNV have no symptoms. Some experience flu-like

symptoms including fever, headache, and body aches, often with skin rash and swollen lymph

glands. In fewer cases, the infection may be more severe and may include headache, high fever,

neck stiffness, stupor, disorientation, coma, tremors, convulsions, muscle weakness, paralysis.

Severe infection may lead to permanent neurological damage or death in the most extreme cases.

What is the treatment for West Nile Virus?

There is no specific treatment for West Nile Virus. Mild cases usually clear up on their own. In

more severe cases, intensive supportive therapy is indicated including hospitalization, IV fluids

and nutrition, and good nursing care. If you develop symptoms of severe WNV illness, such as

unusually severe headaches or confusion, seek medical attention immediately.

Is there a vaccine against West Nile Virus?

There is no vaccine for the West Nile Virus at this time.

Can a person get West Nile Encephalitis directly from birds that might have the virus?

There is evidence that a person with a cut can get West Nile Encephalitis from handling live or

dead birds that test positive for the virus. To be safe, always use gloves or double plastic bags to

handle or remove dead birds.

Is a woman's pregnancy at risk if she gets West Nile encephalitis?

There is evidence that an infection caused by the West Nile virus can be transmitted to the non-

born child of a pregnant woman. The Centers for Disease Control recommends that pregnant

women avoid being bitten (stay away from mosquitoes and use repellent).

Why doesn’t Fire Island National Seashore spray for mosquitoes?

Fire Island National Seashore is by law required to protect the native wildlife, plants and other

natural resources within its boundaries from environmental contamination. Modern insecticides,

while safer for humans than their older counterparts, are often very toxic to fish and other forms

of marine life.

Since 1999, Fire Island National Seashore, in cooperation with Suffolk County, and in

consultation with New York State and the Centers for Disease Control, has conducted a

mosquito surveillance program each summer to monitor mosquitoes on park lands for the

presence of diseases that present a threat to humans, such as Eastern Equine Encephalitis and

West Nile Virus. The program was designed by a leading entomologist from the University of

Rhode Island.

Each week, mosquitoes are sent to Albany to be tested for disease. If mosquito-borne disease is

found in the park, or within a few miles of park boundaries, the National Park Service will

consult with the County, the CDC, New York State and with academic experts to decide whether

or not to spray park lands to reduce the number of adult mosquitoes. Other control methods such

as larviciding may also be implemented.

What role does the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention play in NPS mosquito

management efforts?

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other federal, state and local agencies will

assist the National Park Service to determine the severity of the public health threat from

mosquito-borne disease in Fire Island National Seashore, and to choose the appropriate course of

action to protect the health of staff, residents and visitors.

What can park visitors or park employees do to prevent becoming infected with the West

Nile virus?

No control method will eliminate all mosquitoes. For the individual, the very best form of

protection is personal protection. Avoid areas with mosquitoes, but if you must be outside, wear

protective clothing and use repellent.

• Long-sleeved shirts, long pants, a hat, and gloves can provide increased protection from

mosquitoes. For extra protection, clothing can also be treated with an insecticide such as

permethrin.

• The use of an insect repellent on exposed skin will reduce your chances of being bitten by

mosquitoes. A repellent with 20% to 30% DEET (N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide) as the active

ingredient works the best.

• The combination of permethrin-treated clothing and a DEET-based repellent on exposed skin

will provide for maximum personal protection.

• The use of a head net and mesh jacket can also provide added protection and needed

ventilation on warm days.

Where can I get more information on West Nile Virus and other mosquito borne diseases?

Check on the web at HYPERLINK http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/index.htm or call

your local public health office.

Appendix B (of the 2003 Mosquito Action Plan)

2003 protocol for collecting dead birds on Fire Island National Seashore

The National Park Service, Fire Island National Seashore (NPS-FIIS) will work with the New

York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC), Suffolk County Health

Department and Suffolk County Vector Control (SCVC) to collect and transport bird carcasses.

This will be done in accordance with guidelines developed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,

the Centers for Disease Control, New York State and the Suffolk County Health Department.

For viral testing, the DEC definition of an acceptable bird carcass for collection and

transportation is:

• The bird is a crow, a raven, a blue jay or a raptor (osprey, eagle, hawk, vulture, or falcon).

• The collector believes it died within the past 18-24 hours (the carcass is fresh, not bloated,

infested or decayed).

• The collector believes it did not die of routine natural causes or due to an accident.

EVERY EFFORT SHOULD BE MADE TO COLLECT AND TRANSPORT

CARCASSES TO THE PATCHOGUE MAINTENANCE FACILITY WITHIN A FEW

HOURS SO THAT THE 24-HOUR PERIOD IS NOT PASSED.

________________________________________________________________________

List of dead-bird drop off locations on Fire Island National Seashore:

Lighthouse Annex (checkpoint)

Talisman

Sailors Haven

Watch Hill

Wilderness Visitor Center (Smith Point)

Rules for reporting, handling and transporting dead birds:

1. Safety first and foremost – DO NOT TOUCH THE CARCASS WITH YOUR BARE

HANDS!

2. THE PERSON WHO FOUND THE BIRD (STAFF, RESIDENTS OR VISITORS)

SHOULD CALL THE SUFFOLK COUNTY DEAD BIRD HOTLINE

IMMEDIATELY TO REPORT IT: (631) 853-8405. Staff should explain to visitors that

Suffolk County needs to assign a number to the specimen and to record time and date and a

few details about the bird.

3. Suffolk County will then fax a report to FIIS staff headquarters (Fax # 631-289-4898) with

the name and phone number of the person who found the bird. Whoever is on duty at KEC

700 (FIIS headquarters main desk) will then contact the FIIS dead-bird drop-off location (see

list above) nearest the person who found the bird so that arrangements can be made for a staff

member to pick it up or for the person who found the bird to drop it off.

4. Whenever possible, carcass collection and handling should be done by those staff

on the FIIS Dead Bird Collection List (see list below).

5. Collecting equipment will be found in the dead bird collection-and-transport coolers located

at all ranger stations or visitor centers (Lighthouse Annex, Sailors Haven, Watch Hill, Smith

Point –Wilderness Visitor Center, William Floyd Estate) and at Talisman. In the coolers will

be large plastic bags, rubber gloves and specimen tags. THE TAGS ARE TO BE

COMPLETED BY THE CARCASS COLLECTOR.

6. Collectors should wear rubber gloves (found in cooler).

7. The carcass is collected by inverting a plastic bag (found in cooler), grasping the bird, then

pulling the bird into the bag.

8. The bag with the bird is sealed, then placed inside another plastic bag with a tag containing

the following information:

• Where the bird was found

• Date and time the bird was found

• Collector’s name

• Best estimate of what species it is (e.g. Cyanocitta cristata) and the common name (e.g. Blue

Jay).

9. Place the bagged carcass in the dead bird transportation cooler with two or three blue ice

packs (found in ranger/visitor station freezer). DO NOT FREEZE THE BIRD.

10. Remove the rubber gloves by turning one inside out, holding it with the other glove then

turning that one inside out also. PLACE THE GLOVES IN THE COOLER.

11. Close the cooler securely and transport to the Patchogue Maintenance Facility (PMF) as

quickly as possible by whatever means is available. At PMF there will be a large light gray

dry ice cooler in the mosquito preparation area (near the bathroom). The cooler will be

marked “DEAD BIRDS IN HERE.” Place the bird in the cooler and close securely. The

bird will be transported to SCVC with the next shipment of mosquitoes. The park has

arranged with SCVC to keep dead birds on dry ice until delivered (dry ice will preserve the

integrity of the virus, if any is present, but regular freezing will not).

12. Remove the used gloves from the transportation cooler and discard them into the box next to

the sink marked “USED LATEX GLOVES.” Replace with a fresh pair from the box of

gloves on top of the sink. There will also be a box of plastic bags marked “for dead birds.”

Replace the plastic bag you used with a clean one from this box. Return the dead bird

cooler to the ranger station/visitor center it came from and make sure the blue ice packs

go back into the freezer at the ranger station/visitor center.

Below is a list of personnel recommended and authorized to remove dead birds for viral testing

from the park:

Park Staff on Dead Bird Collection List (in alphabetical order):

Michael Bilecki

Paul Czachor

Steve Czarniecki

Jim Dunphy

Bernie Felix

Steve Finn

Steve Henderson

Joe Heinrich

Stacey Kopitsch

Judy Lakomy

Marie Lawrence

April Lee

Jay Lippert

Irene Rosen

Steve Singler

Richard Stavdal

Mark Tripi

Paula Valentine

Wayne Valentine

Mickey Walsh

Appendix C (of the 2003 Mosquito Action Plan)

DRAFT PRESS RELEASE

Date

West Nile Virus Found on Fire Island

Fire Island National Seashore Superintendent Dave Spirtes announced today that West Nile

Virus-infected mosquitoes/birds have been found on Fire Island. The bird was found by

_________ at ________. The mosquitoes were from a trap set by_______ (Suffolk County/the

park as part of its weekly monitoring program). Testing was done by ________.

The National Park Service will be working closely with the Centers for Disease Control (CDC),

the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC), Suffolk County Vector

Control, and local Fire Island and Long Island municipalities to determine the best course of

action to protect residents, visitors and employees of the Seashore. Actions to protect the public

may include control methods such as larviciding or spraying. The public will be notified 24

hours in advance of any spray event.

The park is also conducting continued surveillance to monitor the severity and extent of West

Nile Virus in the Seashore.

Residents, visitors and staff are advised to avoid mosquito-infested areas. If contact with

mosquitoes is unavoidable, it is advisable to wear protective clothing and use an effective insect

repellent, such as one containing at least 30% DEET. People most at risk of becoming ill from

West Nile Virus are those over 50 years of age or whose health is impaired. Such people are

advised to stay away from areas with mosquitoes.

For general information on West Nile Virus, please contact your local health department.

Information can also be obtained from the CDC, New York State or Suffolk County WNV web

sites, or one of the park visitor centers. If you have information or questions for the park, please

contact our headquarters at (631) 289-4810.

Appendix D (of the 2003 Mosquito Action Plan)

Check List For Map Equipment Caches

Each ranger station at Fire Island National Seashore has Stage Three Personal Protective

Equipment (PPE) stored in a clearly labeled black box. Each station also has a cooler for

transporting dead birds. Boxes and coolers should be kept in an area with other protective

equipment. They should be inspected periodically by District Rangers and the black PPE boxes

should be kept locked. The key should be clearly marked and in an obvious, easily accessible

location (such as a key box). Caches will be available to all staff involved in implementing MAP

protocols. Caches are available at:

West District Ranger Station - Full cache

Sailors Haven Ranger Station/Shop - Full cache

Talisman Shop - Half cache

Watch Hill Ranger Station/Shop- Full cache

Wilderness Visitor Center- Half cache

William Floyd Estate- Half cache

Patchogue Maintenance Facility- Full cache

The following is the list of items in a full cache:

Stage Three PPE Black Box:

• 8 hoop style head nets

• 8 net style bug jackets

• 12 pr. Gloves

• 12 paper suits

• 1 case of repellant (4 cans)

• 4 “After Bite” pens

• one copy of the Mosquito Action Plan

Dead Bird Coolers:

• 12 large plastic bags

• six pairs of rubber gloves

• 6 - 12 bird carcass identification tags

• three blue plastic ice packs (to be placed in site area freezer from July 1 through September

15)

Additional PPE equipment is stored in black boxes at PMF in the Resource Management storage

area (C4 key), in the building directly west of the main building.

Appendix E (of the 2003 Mosquito Action Plan)

Reduction Of Artificial Freshwater Mosquito Breeding Habitat On Park Lands

As stated in the Mosquito Surveillance and Management Protocol, Fire Island National Seashore

will conduct a sanitation program to remove or reduce artificial larval habitat for the West Nile

Virus vector, Culex spp. Such habitat is characterized by the presence of stagnant, dirty, fresh

water. Fresh water that is present and undisturbed for 4 days or more and that contains a

moderate to large quantity of organic matter (decaying vegetation; animal droppings; garbage of

any kind; pollution or runoff from gardens, livestock holding pens, or other sources) is prime

habitat for Culex. Following are suggestions from state and federal agencies in NY, NJ and

elsewhere for where to look for Culex larval habitat and mechanical remedies to reduce the

attractiveness of these areas to mosquitoes.

Underground Septic Tanks

Mosquitoes can enter through covers that don’t fit properly, through cracks in the ground, or

through vent pipes, and produce offspring in large numbers. Covers should be altered so that

they fit adequately, cracks should be filled, and all vents should be covered with screening,

preferably aluminum, to prevent the entry of females ready to lay eggs.

Crawl Spaces under Buildings

Garbage bags, tin cans or other open containers may collect water. Refuse may attract vermin

whose droppings will make the area even more enticing to Culex. Trash or garbage of any kind

should be removed .

Containment Areas for Livestock

Pens should be examined for permanent or semi-permanent puddles, or low, outlying areas of

standing water that receive runoff. Steps should be taken to reduce the amount of runoff and fill

in the puddles. Disposal of animal wastes should be done in an area with drainage sufficient to

prevent the accumulation of rainwater.

Garbage Dumps

Areas should be examined for the presence of standing fresh water (in cans or can covers, trash

bags, old buckets, under or beside storage sheds). Containers should be overturned or adequately

covered and puddles filled in.

Gas Tanks

Area should be examined for the presence of refuse, standing fresh water or containers able to

collect standing water. Refuse should be removed, puddles filled, and containers covered or

overturned.

Clogged Ditches or Drains

Remove source of clog and check routinely.

Garbage Cans, Recycle Bins and Other Containers

Holes should be punched in the bottoms (not the sides) of plastic garbage or recycling bins to

prevent them from holding water. All areas with significant human impact should be examined

for forgotten or discarded containers (flower pots, tin cans, buckets, etc.) that may fill with fresh

water and provide breeding habitat. Containers should be discarded, covered or overturned.

Tire ruts on roads

Tire ruts can prove to be significant breeding ground for freshwater mosquitoes. The ruts should

be filled and the road graded to improve drainage.

Note: If potential breeding sites are found that are not easy to remedy by the means outlined

above, the location and a brief description of the area should be given to the park biologist in

charge of mosquito management.

APPENDIX 3

2003 Annual Report of the Fire Island National Seashore (FIIS) Mosquito Surveillance and

Management Program

Stacey Kopitsch

Fire Island National Seashore, Patchogue, NY 11772

ABSTRACT

The Fire Island National Seashore (FIIS) mosquito surveillance and management

program was implemented in 1998 in response to public concern over Eastern Equine

Encephalitis (EEE), and later West Nile Virus (WNV). Since 2000, WNV has been detected

within the park every year. In 2000 it was detected in the community of Saltaire, in 2001 it was

detected at Watch Hill, and in 2002 it was detected again at Watch Hill (near the border of the

Davis Park community) and in the Wilderness Area.

The 2003 mosquito trapping season began the week of June 2, 2003 and was terminated

the week of October 13, 2003. A total of 12 mosquito traps were maintained at 5 different study

sites within the park. The 5 study sites chosen were the Fire Island Lighthouse Tract, Sailors

Haven, Watch Hill, the Wilderness Area and the William Floyd Estate. Mosquito numbers were

generally low at the start and end of the trapping season and peaked in late June and July. Light

traps typically yielded greater numbers of mosquitoes than gravid traps by orders of magnitude.

The highest light trap total was an estimated 21,000 mosquitoes obtained from a light trap

located in the Wilderness Area. Compared with past years, the numbers of Culex spp. caught in

light traps this year was fairly low. A possible explanation for these lower than usual numbers

may be that the start of the 2003 season was extremely wet, which may have actually inhibited

breeding. For 2003, the highest gravid trap total was 154 mosquitoes, 137 of which were Culex

spp. These were obtained from a gravid trap located at the William Floyd Estate. The larval

sampling that was done produced insignificant numbers (> 10 larvae per dip).

WNV was isolated from 3 pools of Culex spp. caught at the William Floyd Estate. One

pool was collected on 8/18/03 and two pools were collected on 8/26/03. The park’s first WNV

positive bird was also collected this year in the community of Cherry Grove on 8/12/03.

Interestingly, a new mosquito-borne virus was found in the park this year at Watch Hill, with a

pool of O. sollicitans collected on 9/4/03 that tested positive for Cache Valley Virus.

Key words: Cache Valley Virus, Culex spp., Eastern Equine Encephalitis, gravid trap, light trap,

Aedes sollicitans, West Nile Virus.

INTRODUCTION

Fire Island is a 32-mile long barrier island situated off the south shore of Long Island,

New York. A unit of the National Park Service, Fire Island National Seashore (FIIS) comprises

26 miles of this narrow barrier island and is characterized by salt marsh, dune grassland, dune

shrubland, interdunal swale and forest/shrubland habitat (Klopfer et al. 2002). Created in 1964,

FIIS is maintained and operated by the National Park Service, under Department of the Interior

regulation and jurisdiction. Within the boundaries of the park lie the historic William Floyd

Estate, the Otis G. Pike Wilderness area, park-maintained lands such as Sailors Haven and

Watch Hill, as well as 17 private resort communities. All of FIIS falls within the boundaries of

Suffolk County, Long Island. At the West end, FIIS is bounded by the Robert Moses State Park

and on the East end by the Smith Point County Park (figure 1).

In 1998 FIIS implemented a mosquito surveillance and management program in response

to concerns that Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE), a mosquito-borne virus, could potentially

occur within the park. This new program also served as a model study for other national parks to

follow. When another mosquito-borne virus, West Nile Virus (WNV), was found in the New

York region in 1999, mosquito surveillance and management efforts were subsequently

increased within the park. Every year since, WNV has been detected at various locations within

FIIS. In 2000, WNV was detected in the community of Saltaire. In 2001, it was detected at

Watch Hill. In 2002 it was detected in both Watch Hill (near the border of the Davis Park

community) and in the Wilderness Area.

Approximately 40 mosquito species have been recorded from Suffolk County, Long

Island (Guirgis 1984). Approximately 25 of these species have been recorded throughout FIIS

(table 1) (Lussier 2003). Of these species, the FIIS mosquito surveillance and management

program focuses on Culex pipiens, Culex restuans, Culex salinarius, and Aedes sollicitans. All

four of these species are potential vectors for WNV, and Aedes sollicitans is also a potential

vector for EEE. The preferred habitats for Culex pipiens are areas that contain standing water

with high organic content. This could be natural areas such as roadside ditches or artificial

containers such as barrels, discarded tires and wells, or heavily polluted water such as in sewage

treatment plants (Means 1987). The breeding of Culex pipiens is continuous throughout the

summer months and peaks in August (Means 1987). Like Culex pipiens, Culex restuans also

prefer breeding habitats that are rich in organic content. Culex restuans are often misidentified

as Culex pipiens and vice versa, as their appearance is almost identical, except for the scales that

are present on their mesothorax (Means 1987). Culex salinarius breeds in a wide range of

habitats, but is exceptionally abundant in freshwater marshes in Suffolk County (Means 1987).

Aedes sollicitans, formerly classified as Aedes sollicitans and also known as the white-banded

salt marsh mosquito, is abundant in the salt marshes of Suffolk County (Means 1979). Adults

emerge by mid-May and can produce successful generations into late September and even

October (Means 1979).

The FIIS mosquito program relies on two important documents, the Mosquito

Surveillance and Management Protocol and the Mosquito Action Plan (MAP). These are

updated annually in collaboration with county, state and federal organizations, including Suffolk

County Vector Control (SCVC) and Suffolk County Department of Health Services. These

documents contain specific criteria for varying levels of alert and action, as well as the

procedures for handling dead birds, the management of freshwater sources and equipment

requirements.

METHODS

Study Sites

A total of five locations to be used as study sites were selected in consultation with Dr.

Howard Ginsberg of the USGS. The selection of sites was based on vegetative indicators and

either the presence of standing water or indications of water table surfacing. The five study sites

established were 1) the Lighthouse Tract, 2) Sailor’s Haven, 3) Watch Hill, 4) the Wilderness

Area, 5) the William Floyd Estate.

The Fire Island Lighthouse is on the western border of FIIS, adjacent to Robert Moses

State Park. The Lighthouse Tract is characterized by northern dune shrubland, maritime

deciduous scrub forest, brackish meadow, highbush blueberry shrub forest and northern beach

grass dune vegetation (Klopfer et al. 2002). Kismet Pond is also located here, which is a

permanent, freshwater inland pool.

Sailors Haven is a park-maintained area of Fire Island that consists of a public marina, a

visitor center and hiking trails. The Sunken Forest is the dominant feature of Sailors Haven,

consisting of maritime holly forest, maritime decidious scrub forest and coastal oak-heath forest

(Klopfer et al. 2002). Sailors Haven is adjacent to the community of Cherry Grove.

Like Sailors Haven, Watch Hill is a park-maintained area consisting of a public marina,

visitor center and hiking trails. Watch Hill is characterized by northern dune shrubland, northern

beach grass dune, pitch pine dune woodland, pitch pine oak forest, maritime deciduous scrub

forest, highbush blueberry shrub forest, reedgrass marsh and northern salt shrub vegetation

(Klopfer et al. 2002). Watch Hill is adjacent to the community of Davis Park.

The Otis G. Pike Wilderness Area is the only federally designated Wilderness Area in

New York State and the entire Northeast. It is characterized by low and high saltmarsh, northern

dune shrubland, northern salt shrub, reedgrass marsh, brackish meadow habitat, highbush

blueberry shrub forest, brackish interdunal swale and beach heather dune vegetation (Klopfer et

al. 2002). The Wilderness Area is bordered on the east by Smith Point County Park.

Though not located on the barrier island, the historic William Floyd Estate became a part

of FIIS in 1976. The estate consists of 640 acres located in Mastic, NY on Long Island. It is

dominated by coastal oak-heath forest and also characterized by cultivated pasture, pitch pine-

oak forest, reedgrass marsh, high salt marsh, maritime deciduous scrub forest, acidic red maple

basin swamp forest and northern salt shrub vegetation (Klopfer et al. 2002).

Equipment

Two types of traps were used for the collection of mosquitoes: CDC Gravid traps (John

W. Hock Company model #1712) and CDC Miniature Light traps (John W. Hock Company

model #512). The gravid traps were designed to attract and collect gravid (egg-bearing) Culex

mosquitoes. Gravid mosquitoes were the preferred specimens for testing WNV as they have

already fed and are therefore more likely to be infected with the virus than those mosquitoes

which have not yet fed. The gravid traps consisted of PVC tubing that had a basic motor and fan

secured inside. These were powered by a sealed 6-volt battery. The PVC tubing rested on top of

a bin that contained an organic, fermented mixture of grass, rabbit feed and water. The traps

were adjusted so that the base of each tube sat approximately 1 inch above the surface of the

mixture. As gravid mosquitoes approached the organic mixture to lay their eggs, the fan pulled

the mosquitoes up into the tubing and into a net placed at the top of the tubing (figure 2).

The light traps were designed to attract and collect host-seeking adult female mosquitoes

of all species. As with the gravid traps, the light traps consisted of a basic motor and fan secured

inside a tube and powered by a battery. In order to attract mosquitoes to the light trap, a block of

6” x 6” x 6” dry ice was wrapped in newspaper and hung adjacent to the trap. Carbon dioxide

gas given off during sublimation of the dry ice attracted mosquitoes to the vicinity of the trap.

Once baited, an incandescent light located at the top of the trap drew the mosquitoes to the trap,

upon which the fan pulled them down inside the tubing and into a collection container at the

bottom (figure 3).

Personal protection equipment was a necessity for the field work done for the mosquito

program. A white, disposable TyvekTM suit with a hood and elastic wrists and ankles was worn

for protection against ticks and mosquito bites. A hoop-ring headnet and leather gloves were

also worn for protection against mosquito bites. Rubber hip waders were worn for when hiking

in wet areas and also provided a smooth surface that inhibited ticks from grasping on.

Trapping Schedule

The mosquito trapping season began the week of June 2, 2003 and ended the week of

October 13, 2003. The season began with a total of 10 traps established at the five study sites.

Two additional traps were established later in the season to give a total of 12 traps that were

maintained within FIIS. Traps were typically set in the afternoon, left overnight and then picked

up the following morning. Care was taken not to leave the traps out for longer than 12 hours, as

the specimens could dry out. Ideally, each trap was to be set once per week. Dry ice for the light

traps was purchased from Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL). Ice pickups were scheduled

for every Tuesday morning at BNL. At the start of the season, the mosquito technician took a 4

hour safety at BNL to obtain a pass to enter the Brookhaven campus.

Multiple traps were maintained at each study site, however the Lighthouse Tract location

was an exception in that only a single gravid trap was maintained there. This trap was positioned

opposite Kismet pond (figure 4).

At the start of the 2003 season, the Sailor’s Haven location contained 2 traps, a gravid

trap located within the Sunken Forest and a light trap positioned behind the concessions building.

After a dead crow from Cherry Grove tested positive for WNV, a second light trap was added on

8/28/03 near the Cherry Grove border, bringing the total to 3 traps at the Sailors Haven location

(figure 5).

A total of 3 traps were positioned at Watch Hill: 2 gravid traps and 1 light trap. The light

trap and one of the gravid traps were situated near the border of the Davis Park community near

a temporary woodland pool. These two traps were referred to as Watch Hill West gravid trap

and Watch Hill Light trap. Two traps were placed at this location because WNV had been

detected there the previous year. The other gravid trap was located next to house #12 in a

reedgrass marsh near the fire break. This trap was referred to as Watch Hill gravid trap (figure

6).

The Wilderness Area contained 1 light trap and 1 gravid trap. The light trap was

positioned between the low and high marsh on the bay side, approximately 1 kilometer west of

the Wilderness Visitor Center at Smith Point. This location was referred to as Smith Shores.

The gravid trap was positioned approximately ¾ of a kilometer east of Old Inlet, directly on

Burma Road. This location was referred to as Hospital Point (figure 7).

The William Floyd Estate initially had 2 gravid traps. One was located near the salt

marsh at the eastern border of the estate, and was thus referred to as the William Floyd Estate

East gravid trap. The other trap was located in the forest on the western border and thus referred

to as the William Floyd Estate West gravid trap. A light trap was added at the western location

on 7/28/03, following a false positive WNV test result (and three subsequent positives) at this

location. This trap was referred to as the William Floyd Estate light trap (figure 8). For all trap

locations, Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates were generated using a GarminTM

Global Positioning System (GPS) unit.

In anticipation of high winds associated with a nearby Hurricane, all trap equipment was

removed from the island and the William Floyd Estate on 9/16/03 and 9/17/03. Following the

passage of the storm, the 2 gravid traps at the William Floyd Estate were re-established for one

additional week and then removed. All of the light traps were re-established and set through the

week of October 13, 2003, when the trapping season was terminated.

Transportation

Compared to other developed barrier islands, Fire Island is unique in that it does not have

a paved road, therefore not all traps could be reached by vehicle. Of the five study sites, only the

Lighthouse, the William Floyd Estate and the Smith Shores light trap could be reached by

vehicle. The traps located at Sailors Haven, Watch Hill and Hospital Point could only be

reached by boat. This method of transportation was highly weather-dependent and so the

trapping schedule varied each week according to the forecast. During inclement weather, traps

that needed to be set by boat sometimes could not be set and so incomplete data was obtained for

the week. Ferries that operated to both Sailors Haven and Watch Hill were sometimes used

during inclement weather. Two vessels were used for monitoring at the locations only accessible

by boat. These were 21’ and 17’ open vessels with single outboard engines. A van was used for

those traps accessible by vehicle. Though never done, it was also possible to use a 4-wheel drive

vehicle to drive along the beach. This would only have been permitted after Labor Day when the

FIIS beach driving season was reopened.

Adult Mosquito Sampling and Analysis

After being established at a particular location, most of the trap equipment remained at

that trap site until the end of the season. The only equipment that was removed and reset each

week were the batteries, the collection nets and any remaining dry ice. Immediately after being

picked up in the mornings, the collection nets were placed in a cooler with dry ice to preserve the

specimens and knock them unconscious so that they could later be analyzed. If the specimens

were wet upon being picked up, the collection nets were hung indoors and allowed to dry

thoroughly before placing them on dry ice.

The analysis of mosquitoes involved determining the total number of mosquitoes caught

per trap, the total numbers of Culex spp. and O. sollicitans caught per trap, and the isolation of

mosquito pools to be sent for arbovirus testing. For traps that contained relatively few

mosquitoes (less than 500), all individual mosquitoes were counted to determine the total number

caught, the total number of Culex spp. caught and the total number of O. sollicitans caught. For

traps that contained high numbers of mosquitoes (greater than 500), the total number of

mosquitoes in that trap was estimated using sample size: mass ratios. The contents of the entire

trap were weighed using a triple beam balance, and the resulting mass compared to the mass of a

known sub-sample size (between 100 and 300 mosquitoes) from that same trap. The following

formula was used:

T = (# of mosquitoes in sub-sample)(mass of all mosquitoes) ÷ mass of sub-sample

where T = the total number of mosquitoes in a single trap.

For traps with high numbers of mosquitoes, the total number of Culex spp. and O.

sollicitans were also estimated. This was done by determining the percentage of Culex spp. or

O. sollicitans in that known sub-sample, and then multiplying that percentage by the estimated

total number of mosquitoes. To estimate the total number of Culex spp. in a single trap the

following formula was used:

% of Culex = (# of Culex in sub-sample ÷ total # of individuals in sub-sample) x 100

TC = % of Culex x T

where TC = the total number of Culex spp. in a single trap. To estimate the total number of O.

sollicitans in a single trap the same formula was used:

% of O. sol. = (# of O. sol. in sub-sample ÷ total # of individuals in sub-sample) x 100

Tsol = % of O. sollicitans x T

where Tsol = the total number of O. sollicitans in a single trap.

After estimating the total number of Culex spp. and O. sollicitans, the species in each trap

were sorted. Individual Culex spp. and O. sollicitans were pulled out to form pools. A pool

consisted of 10 to 50 mosquitoes of the same species collected from the same trap at the same

time. Depending on the time constraints each day, as many pools as possible of Culex spp. were

picked out. More emphasis was put on picking out pools of Culex spp., as WNV was a more

immediate threat on FIIS than EEE. Therefore a maximum of only 3 O. sollicitans pools were

usually picked out of each trap. Pools were placed in petri dishes, secured with rubber bands and

labeled with the type of trap (gravid or light), the trap location, the date set and the contents of

the pool (# of mosquitoes and species). Pools were then stored on dry ice until they could be

transported to Suffolk County Vector Control. Once at SCVC, they were stored in a dry ice

freezer until being sent to the New York State Department of Health Wadsworth Center in

Albany for arbovirus testing. Results of the laboratory testing took approximately 2 weeks to get

back.

Larval Sampling and Analysis

As time permitted, larval sampling was done in areas that have had positive WNV pools,

either from 2003 (William Floyd Estate), or in previous years (Wilderness Area and Watch Hill).

Sampling was done along transects, preferably in an East to West direction. A standard pint-

dipper with an extended handle was used for sampling (Service 1976). For salt marsh sampling,

transects were walked for 80 steps, with one dip taken per step, on alternate sides giving a total

of 80 dips. Freshwater transects followed the same procedure except that they were walked for

only 25 steps giving a total of 25 dips. Whether or not the dipper encountered wet or dry ground

was recorded, as well as the number of mosquito larvae in each dip. A representative sample of

larvae from the entire transect was saved in a NalgeneTM container and labeled with the date,

time and location collected. Once back at the lab, larvae were analyzed under a stereoscopic

microscopic and a key was used to determine species. Individual species were then transferred

into glass vials containing ethanol to be stored.

RESULTS

Light Traps

For 2003, the total numbers of mosquitoes caught in light traps exhibited a bimodal

curve. The traps yielded low numbers at the start of the season followed by an increase during

the end of June and July. There was then a decrease during the months of August and

September, followed by a slight increase again during late September into October (figure 9).

The highest total came from the Smith Shores trap on 6/30/03, with an estimated 21,000

mosquitoes. The Smith Shores light trap averaged 5800 mosquitoes, the Watch Hill light trap

averaged 2200 mosquitoes, the Sailors Haven light trap averaged 1700 mosquitoes, the Sailors

Haven West light trap averaged 381 mosquitoes and the William Floyd Estate light trap averaged

273 mosquitoes during the 2003 season.

The total numbers of Culex spp. caught in the light traps also exhibited a bimodal curve

(figure 10). The highest total of Culex spp. came from the Smith Shores trap on 6/30/03 with an

estimated total of 6400. The Smith Shores light trap averaged 1900, the Watch Hill light trap

averaged 1000, the Sailors Haven light trap averaged 55, the Sailors Haven West light trap

averaged 238 and the William Floyd Estate light trap averaged 106 Culex spp. during the 2003

season.

The total numbers of O. sollicitans caught in the light traps exhibited a bell-shaped curve,

with the lowest numbers occurring at the start and end of the season, and a peak occurring in the

middle of the season (figure 11). The highest total of O. sollicitans came from the Smith Shores

trap on 7/28/03 with an estimated total of 7200. The Smith Shores light trap averaged 1500, the

Watch Hill light trap averaged 247, the Sailors Haven light trap averaged 14, the Sailors Haven

West light trap averaged 5 and the William Floyd Estate light trap averaged 44 O. sollicitans

during the 2003 season.

Gravid Traps

The total numbers of mosquitoes caught in gravid traps also exhibited a bell-shaped

curve, with the lowest totals occurring at the start and end of the season, and the highest totals

occurring in the middle of the season (Figure 12). The highest total came from the William

Floyd Estate West gravid trap on 7/22/03, with a total of 154 mosquitoes. The William Floyd

Estate West gravid trap averaged 47 mosquitoes and the William Floyd Estate East gravid trap

averaged 10 mosquitoes during the season. The Hospital Point gravid trap averaged 27

mosquitoes, the Sunken Forest gravid trap averaged 11 mosquitoes and the Lighthouse gravid

trap averaged 12 mosquitoes. The Watch Hill gravid trap averaged 14 mosquitoes and the Watch

Hill West gravid trap averaged 16 mosquitoes during the 2003 season.

The total numbers of Culex spp. caught in gravid traps exhibited a bell-shaped curve as

well (Figure 13). The highest total came from the William Floyd Estate West gravid trap on

7/22/03, with a total of 137 Culex spp. The William Floyd Estate West gravid trap averaged 40

and the William Floyd Estate East gravid trap averaged 7 Culex spp. during the season. The

Hospital Point gravid trap averaged 14 and the Sunken Forest and Lighthouse gravid traps both

averaged 9. The Watch Hill gravid trap averaged 7 and the Watch Hill West gravid trap

averaged 14 gravid Culex spp. during the 2003 season.

The total numbers of O. sollicitans caught in gravid traps also exhibited a bell-shaped

curve, however these numbers were much less than the number of Culex spp. caught (Figure 14).

The highest total came from the Hospital Point gravid trap on 7/28/03, with a total of 49 O.

sollicitans. Over the course of the season, the Hospital Point gravid trap averaged 10 O.

sollicitans. The William Floyd Estate West gravid trap averaged 1 and the Lighthouse gravid

trap averaged 2 O. sollicitans. The Watch Hill gravid trap averaged 3 and the Watch Hill West

gravid trap averaged 2. No O. sollicitans were caught in both the William Floyd Estate East and

the Sunken Forest gravid traps during the 2003 season.

Larvae

Five different larval species were identified from the larval sampling that was done (table

2). Culex pipiens were obtained from roadside ditches at the William Floyd Estate, Culex

salinarius were obtained from the William Floyd marsh and Anopheles spp. were found in a

small pond at the Estate. Aedes vexans and Aedes canadensis were both found in a temporary

woodland pool at the Watch Hill West site. The five larval species that were found were not

present in significant numbers (< 10 larvae per dip). No larvae were found when a transect was

done at the Smith Shores marsh.

Arbovirus Testing

A dead crow collected from the Community of Cherry Grove on 8/12/03 tested positive

for WNV. Virus was also isolated from three pools of Culex spp. from the William Floyd Estate

West gravid trap. One of these pools was collected on 8/18/03 and the other two pools were

collected on 8/26/03. On 10/6/03, the park was notified by SCVC that a pool of O. sollicitans

collected on 9/4/03 from the Watch Hill light trap had a positive virus test result, possibly for

EEE. This virus was later determined to be Cache Valley Virus.

DISCUSSION

Light Traps

The total number of mosquitoes and the total number of Culex spp. caught in light traps

this year exhibited a bimodal curve. At the start of the season, these numbers were low, a

possible explanation being the extremely wet start to the season (Figure 15). Approximately

12.27 inches of rain were recorded for the month of June, a month that typically averages 3.59

inches (Brookhaven National Laboratory 2003, Maghini 2003). The high amount of rain this

season may have washed away eggs that were already laid and could have diluted already

standing water, reducing the organic content and therefore making it not ideal for Culex spp. to

breed. As the weather got warmer and drier, there was a peak in the total number of mosquitoes,

and the total number of Culex spp. and O. sollicitans during late June and the month of July.

Towards the middle of August and into September, there was then a decrease in the total number

of mosquitoes, and of Culex spp. and O. sollicitans. Though temperatures were still fairly warm

at this point, a possible explanation for this decline could be the desiccation of breeding habitat.

Interestingly, in late September and into October, the total number of mosquitoes and Culex spp.

caught in the light traps increased, despite the cooler weather. A possible explanation for this

may be that there is breeding activity occurring in septic tanks in some of the communities

(Davis Park). The exact species of Culex isolated from the light traps was not determined,

however the identification of these species may offer more insight.

Gravid Traps

The total number of Culex spp. caught in the gravid traps exhibited a bell-shaped curve.

The low numbers at the start of the season may also be explained by the wet weather. These

numbers peaked in July and August, with the William Floyd Estate West gravid trap having the

highest numbers. This is also the only location in the park from which WNV positive

mosquitoes were isolated. By the first week in September, all of the gravid traps were catching

numbers of Culex spp. that were insufficient to be sent for arbovirus testing (> 10 mosquitoes).

Gravid trapping was therefore terminated the week of 9/22/03.

Other species of mosquitoes, including O. sollicitans, being caught in the gravid traps is

incidental, as the gravid traps are designed for the collection of Culex spp. The discussion of

these results therefore is irrelevant.

Larval Sampling

Larval sampling is done to monitor mosquito emergences and to located breeding habitat.

If disease is present in an area of the park, larval sampling is critical for determining the possible

need for control measures for the anticipated mosquito population. Due to time constraints,

larval sampling at FIIS was very infrequent. When sampling was done is late July and August,

potential breeding areas were often dry. Larvae that were collected were not found in significant

numbers, as all sampling occasions produced fewer than 10 larvae per dip. The increase in Culex

spp. numbers at the end of the season shows that these mosquitoes are still able to breed even

during the cool weather. Attempts to locate Culex spp. breeding habitat however were

unsuccessful, which again suggests that these mosquitoes are breeding in areas such as the septic

tanks found in the communities of FIIS.

Arbovirus Testing

All positive test results were communicated to the mosquito biotechnician, park biologist

and superintendent by Suffolk County Vector Control. Park staff were then notified of the

results via email. Staff were advised to use personal protection and limit their exposure to areas

with high mosquito densities. Interestingly, a new arbovirus was isolated at FIIS. Cache Valley

virus (CV) was isolated from a pool of O. sollicitans collected on 9/4/03 from the Watch Hill

Light trap. The virus was first isolated in Utah in the 1950’s and affects mainly livestock and is

not thought to cause human disease, though there is a documented case of a deer hunter in North

Carolina contracting Cache Valley virus (Sexton et al. 1997).

Important Issues

One very important issue that affects the FIIS mosquito program is the logistics

associated with trapping. As Fire Island has no road, the logistics of trapping are very

complicated. Setting each trap once per week could not always be done due to the problems

associated with transportation on Fire Island. Trapping by boat was a necessity for several

locations, however this method of transportation was not always reliable due to the weather.

Often times, a trap could not be set due to inclement weather. Occasionally, the vessels used for

trapping needed to be serviced, during which time the trapping schedule was further

complicated. Using ferries as a method of transportation was sometimes a possibility, though

could not be relied upon, especially prior to Memorial Day and after Labor Day as fewer trips

were scheduled at these times. Driving on the beach was a possibility after Labor Day, though

this too would have further complicated the trapping schedule, as the daily tides would need to

be taken into account.

Another issue associated with the FIIS mosquito program is the failure and disturbance of

equipment. Often times, a trap was disturbed or failed after being set, resulting in incomplete

data. A particular problem this year occurred at the William Floyd Estate. For a period of

several weeks, the west gravid trap was continuously overturned and its contents spilled. It was

eventually determined from a footprint that a raccoon was knocking over this trap. The trap was

relocated several meters away and never disturbed again.

Another issue that occurred this year was that following several positive pools in the

Mastic Beach area of Long Island, Suffolk County Vector Control scheduled aerial pesticide

spraying in the area. The William Floyd Estate is located within this area, and so would have

been sprayed as well. After several correspondences between FIIS and SCVC, it was decided

that aerial spraying would occur, but the William Floyd Estate would not be sprayed.

One final issue that affected the mosquito program this year was that of severe weather.

In mid September, Hurricane Isabel had a projected storm path that included Long Island. The

park went into incident command mode and all trap equipment was removed from the island and

the William Floyd Estate. Following the passage of the storm, the light traps and the two

William Floyd Estate gravid traps were reestablished. On 10/14/03 and 10/15/03 a high wind

advisory was issued, with the forecasted winds being higher than what was experienced by

Hurricane Isabel. The William Floyd Estate and Smith Shores light traps however were still set.

Heavy flooding in the Wilderness Area prevented the Smith Shores trap from being picked up.

When this trap was finally retrieved, both the trap and the battery suffered extensive damage

from the wind and flooding.

Recommendations for the FIIS mosquito program

The position of mosquito biotechnician at FIIS is a seasonal one, and for this reason has a

high amount of turnover. A new biotechnician must be trained almost on an annual basis, which

is an overwhelming commitment. For example, being able to operate a motorboat is an essential

skill for this program. The Motorboat Operator Certification Course (MOCC) offered by the

park is a very challenging class. Even when taken early in the season, it takes weeks of

dedicated practice in order to pass the MOCC boating exam. Until certified, the mosquito

biotechnician requires a certified motorboat operator to accompany him/her when using a boat

for either practice or trapping. The time commitment required for this significantly cuts into the

commitments and duties of park motorboat operators. As a recommendation, motorboat skills

should be a minimum qualification for the mosquito biotechnician prior to being hired.

To avoid a high turnover rate, the position of mosquito biotechnician could be made

permanent. The biotechnician should primarily be responsible for the mosquito program, but as

a permanent employee, could assist with other resource management programs after the trapping

season. This would result in a more robust mosquito program and would also relieve some of the

strain on resources experienced from the shortage of park staff.

Some of the equipment used for this program also needs to be upgraded. For example,

when estimating the total number of mosquitoes in a trap, a triple beam balance with an accuracy

of only 0.1g is used. These trap estimates therefore are extremely crude and inaccurate. The park

should upgrade to an electronic balance with an accuracy of at least 0.001g for weighing such

small masses as mosquitoes. Also, the majority of the traps used in the program are old, and

several of them failed during the season. There was no adequate supply of replacement light

traps this year and so new traps had to be ordered during the height of the season, a process

which took several weeks. As a result, a light trap was not set at the William Floyd Estate for

several weeks, and this was the location where WNV was isolated. For every trap established in

the field, there should be a working, replacement trap kept on hand in the event that a trap should

fail.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Marie Lawrence, as her time and dedication were essential for this

program’s functioning. I would like to thank Dr. Scott Campbell and Dr. Howard Ginsberg for

their academic expertise. I also wish to thank Dawn Wiley and Heather Bosserman for their

assistance with GPS data. Finally, I would like to thank members of the FIIS maintenance staff

for their assistance with transportation.

LITERATURE CITED

Brookhaven National Laboratory. Monthly precipitation records. November 19, 2003

<http:///www.bnl.gov/weather/4cast/precip.html>.

Guirgis, S. S. 1984. A new record of Culiseta annulata with notes on mosquito species in

Suffolk County, Long Island, New York. Mosquito News 44: 246.

Klopfer et al. 2002. NPS Vegetation Mapping Project at Fire Island National Seashore.

Conservation Management Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA.

Lussier, C. 2003. Distribution and comparative trapping of mosquitoes in NPS units in

the northeastern United States. Master’s Thesis, University of Rhode Island,

Kingston, RI.

Maghini, M. 2003. Wertheim National Wildlife Refuge weather station data. U. S. Fish

and Wildlife Service, Shirley, NY.

Means, R. G. 1979. Mosquitoes of New York part I: the genus Aedes Meigen with

identification keys to genera of Culicidae. The University of the State of New

York, Albany, NY.

Means, R. G. 1987. Mosquitoes of New York part II: genera of Culicidae other

than Aedes occurring in New York. The University of the State of New

York, Albany, NY.

Service, M. W. 1976. Mosquito ecology: field sampling methods. Halsted Press, New

York, NY.

Sexton. et al. 1997. Life-threatening Cache Valley virus infection. New England

Journal of Medicine 336: 547-549.

TABLES AND FIGURES FOR APPENDIX 3

Table 1. Mosquito species isolated from FIIS (Lussier 2003).

Species

Aedes triseriatus Ochlerotatus canadensis

Aedes vexans Ochlerotatus cantator

Ochlerotatus cinereus

Anopheles atropos Ochlerotatus excrusicans

Anopheles punctipennis Ochlerotatus riparius

Anopheles quadrimaculatis Ochlerotatus sollicitans

Ochlerotatus sticticus

Culex pipiens Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus

Culex restuans Ochlerotatus trivittatus

Culex salinarius

Culex territans Psorophora ciliata

Psorophora ferrox

Coquillettidia perturbans

Uranotaenis sappphirina

Culiseta impatiens

Culiseta incidens

Culiseta melanura

Date Location Habitat

Species

Species Number Transect?

7/29/03 Smith Shores marsh N/A 0 yes

8/1/03 William Floyd Estate marsh Culex salinarius 15 yes

8/1/03 William Floyd Estate roadside ditch Culex pipiens 4 no

8/15/03 Watch Hill woodland pool Ochlerotatus canadensis 6 no

Aedes vexans 1

8/19/03 William Floyd Estate pond Anopheles spp. 4 yes

Table 2. 2003 larval sampling results.

Figure 1. Map of Fire Island National Seashore

[For more tables please see link to article below.]

National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Northeast Region

Natural Resource Stewardship and Science

15 State Street

Boston, Massachusetts 02109

http://www.nps.gov/nero/science/

Link to Article- Click HERE