The initiative wanted honour the memory of Dr Carlo Urbani who died of SARS in Hanoi in 2003, having contracted the coronavirus infection during his investigation work on the epidemics.

Implementation of GHSA will draw on USAID experience addressing highly dangerous pathogens, including Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), avian influenzas, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus , as well as lessons from ongoing global efforts to establish prevention, preparedness, and response capabilities for the possible spread of viruses across borders.

Figure 1.4 Selected emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases: 1996–2004 Ebola and Crimean– Congo haemorrhagic fever; Influenza H5N1; Hantavirus; Lassa fever; Monkeypox; Nipah; Hendra; New variant Creutzfeld–Jakob disease; Rift Valley fever; SARS coronavirus; Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis; Yellow fever; West Nile fever; Cryptosporidiosis; Leptospirosis; Lyme borreliosis; Escherichia coli O157; Multidrug-resistant Salmonella.

• Based on infected organism:
  Calf coronavirus
  Human coronavirus (HCV/HCoV)
  Bovine coronavirus
  Feline coronavirus
  Cheetah coronavirus
  Asian leopard cat coronavirus
  Civet cat coronavirus
  Murine coronavirus
  Parker's rat coronavirus (RCV)
  Rat sialodacryoadenitis virus (RCV-SDA)
  Longquan mouse coronavirus
  Porcine coronavirus
  Canine coronavirus
  Avian coronavirus
  Pigeon coronavirus
  Pheasant coronavirus
  Canada goose coronavirus (CGCoV)
  Blue-winged teal coronavirus
  Guinea fowl coronavirus
  Turkey coronavirus
  Equine coronavirus
  Bubaline coronavirus
  Bat coronavirus
  Pipistrellus bat coronavirus
  Tylonycteris bat coronavirus
  Miniopterus bat coronavirus
  Zaria bat coronavirus
  Rosettus bat coronavirus
  Rhinolophus bat coronavirus
  Scotophilus bar coronavirus
  HKU6 bat coronavirus
  HKU6-1 bat coronavirus
  Chinese ferret badger coronavirus
  Sable antelope coronavirus
  Dromedary camel coronavirus
  Bottlenose dolphin coronavirus
  Beluga whale coronavirus
  White-tailed deer coronavirus

• Based on pathogenicity
  pathogenic coronavirus
  non-pathogenic coronavirus
  innocuous coronavirus
  harmless coronavirus
  asymptomatic coronavirus
  mild coronavirus
  lethal conoravirus
  avirulent coronavirus
  highly pathogenic human coronavirus

• Based on affected organism and system
  Porcine respiratory coronavirus
  Canine respiratory coronavirus
  Feline enteric coronavirus
  Canine enteric coronavirus
  Human respiratory coronavirus
  Bovine enteric coronavirus
  Human enteric coronavirus
  Calf enteric coronavirus
  Ferret enteric coronavirus
  Turkey enteric coronavirus
  

Bovine respiratory coronavirus
Mouse neurotropic coronavirus
Rabbit enteric coronavirus
Swine enteric coronavirus
Bat enteric coronavirus

• Based on the disease caused:
  Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis coronavirus (PHE-CoV/PHEV)
  Swine acute diarrhoea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV)
  Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV)
  Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)
  Mouse hepatitis coronavirus
  [Porcine] transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus (TGEV)
  Feline infectious peritonitis [corona]virus (FIPV)
  Porcine epidemic diarrhoea coronavirus (PEDV)
  Avian infectious bronchitis coronavirus (IBV)
  Neonatal calf diarrhoea coronavirus (NCDCV)
  Human pneumonia-associated coronavirus
  Bat SARS-like coronavirus
  BCoV-like human enteric coronavirus
  SARS-like coronavirus
  SARS-associated coronavirus
  MERS-like coronavirus
  MERS-related coronavirus
  common-cold coronavirus
  PED coronavirus
  Covid-19 coronavirus

• Based on geographical location
  Wuhan coronavirus
  British coronavirus
  Danish coronavirus

• Based on affected system/tissue:
  respiratory coronavirus
  enteric coronavirus
  neurotropic coronavirus
  gastrointestinal coronavirus
  neurovirulent coronavirus
  nasopharungeal coronavirus
  pantropic coronavirus

• Based on transmission
  zoonotic coronavirus
  epizootic swine coronavirus
  fecal coronavirus

• Based on taxonomy
  Alphacoronavirus
  Betacoronavirus
  Gammacoronavirus
  Deltacoronavirus

• Based on viral morphology
  trimeric coronavirus
  trimeric human coronavirus
  trimeric SARS coronavirus
  enveloped RNA coronavirus
  single-stranded RNA coronavirus

• Based on human manipulation
  chimeric coronavirus
  UV-inactivated coronavirus
  attenuated coronavirus

Protein repertoire of the coronaviruses consists of four main structural and approximately 16 major non-structural proteins.

Coronavirus consists four main proteins, spike (S), membrane (M), envelope (E) and nucleocapsid (N).

• highly conserved components of the coronavirus lifecycle that mediate viral replication

• include:

  • 3C-like protease (3CLpro)

  • papain-like protease (PLpro)

  • RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp)

Currently, there are at least seven known human coronaviruses (2019-nCoV, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, HCoV-229E, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-NL63, and HCoV-HKU1), where many of them, including severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), were shown to be transmitted from bats.

To date, 7 pathogenic HCoVs (Figure 2A and 2B) have been found [1, 27] : (i) 2019-nCoV, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, HCoV-OC43, and HCoV-HKU1 are b genera, and (ii) HCoV-NL63 and HCoV-229E are a genera.

Subsequent to the WHO declaration, the United States Surgeon General proclaimed a formal advisory to cancel elective surgeries at hospitals due to the concern that elective procedures may contribute to the spreading of the coronavirus within facilities and use up medical resources needed to manage a potential surge of coronavirus cases [6] . The announcement escalated to a nationwide debate regarding the safety and feasibility of continuing to perform elective surgical procedures during the COVID-19 pandemic [7, 8] . Many health care professionals erroneously interpreted the Surgeon General's recommendation as a "blanket directive" to cancel all elective procedures in the Country [9] . This notion was vehemently challenged in an open letter to the Surgeon General on behalf of United States hospitals [10] .

Although the efficacy of antiviral therapy is still uncertain, combination treatment based on the inhibition of viral replication might reduce the inflammatory injury, and can allow the body to gradually produce enough virus-specific antibodies to clear the virus through the immune response, and ultimately cure the disease. There is a great debate on the use of corticosteroids for coronavirus infection such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) [11, 12] and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) [13, 14] , and the data of systemic corticosteroid treatment in critical COVID-19 are lacking. The findings of this study support the use of corticosteroids in severe COVID-19. Early use (immediately on admission or within the first three days of hospitalization) might relatively rapid control the disease progress or avoid disease further deterioration.

As described above, neutrophilia was related to severe 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia and composite endpoint. However, up to now most of the research have focused on the role of lymphocyte in 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia. We think that the role of neutrophila in 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia shouldn't be ignored and further related researches are needed in the future.

In vitro experiments also showed a strong antiviral effect of chloroquine on a recombinant HCoV-O43 coronavirus [45] . Although chloroquine was reported to be active against Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in vitro [46] , this observation remains controversial [47] .

We have read with great interest the Correspondence by Shibo Jiang and colleagues, in which they propose a name change for the newly emerged coronavirus, which was recently designated severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) by the Coronavirus Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. The authors argued that the use of SARS in the virus name could confuse the public about the disease that it causes; in addition, they noted that the name SARS-CoV-2 is not consistent with the disease name chosen by WHO, coronavirus disease 2019.