Napoleonic Era
(1799 to 1815)
What happened?
The Napoleonic era concerns the period in which Napoleon Bonaparte was in power in France, namely the years from 1799 when he seized power until his final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In Napoleon's political-military life there are three different periods. The first being the National Assembly, the second being the Legislative Assembly and the third period being the Directory.
Napoleon ruled for 15 years. His era begins with Napoleon Bonaparte’s coup d’état, overthrowing the Directory in 1799. He brought political stability to France after the land was torn after the French Revolution. He made peace with the Catholic Church. In 1804 Napoleon published the Civil Code which helped stabilize French society. This Code affirmed the political and legal equality of all adult men and established a merit-based society in which individuals advanced in education and employment. Talent became more important than birth or social standing. His own ambitions were to establish a solid dynasty within France and create a French empire in Europe. To this end he proclaimed himself emperor and sketched a new aristocracy to increase his personal power. He forced Prussia, Austria, and Russia to ally with him. He was almost constantly at war, with Britain his greatest enemy, who refused to recognize French hegemony in Europe. Until 1812, his campaigns were mostly successive. He was a master tactician in winning repeatedly in the major battles, although he frequently made strategical errors.
Napoleonic France annexed territories in the Low Countries (the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Belgium in 2021) and Western Germany. He applied full legislation in those parts. Other parts of Germany became satellite kingdoms, also Italy, Poland, and Spain. From 1810 an important guerrilla movement began to harass his forces. An 1812 invasion attempt in Russia failed miserably in the cold Russian winter. Napoleon underestimated the difficulties his army would have to face while invading and occupying Russia. Bonaparte was convinced that the Tsar was conspiring with Britain. He sends 600.000 soldiers to Moscow. Before capturing Moscow, the Tsar set the city ablaze, leaving no shelter or supplies for the French army. Napoleon ordered a retreat and only 30.000 soldiers returned to France. In the meantime, the other great powers formed an alliance in 1813. France fell to these invading forces in 1814 and Napoleon was exiled, only to return dramatically and be defeated at Waterloo in 1815, marking the end of the reign of Napoleon.
Large Purple Perfume Bottle. Found: Dio-et-Valquiéres, Languedoc-Roussillon, France (JN0124)
Perfume
± 1800 to ± 1900
Fragrance use is thousands of years old. At first, fragrant herbal mixtures were mainly the domain of Greek priests in religious ceremonies during classical times. The release of the fragrance during combustion is the basis of the modern word perfume, derived from the Latin ‘per fumum’ (= through smoke). Some Romans thought it was an Eastern "decadence". There was a great demand for precious oils and spreads. You could smell the rich parts of the city from afar. With the rise of Christianity, that appreciation changed drastically. Vanity was a major sin.
Knowledge of perfume was preserved in the Arab world during the Middle Ages. Mohammed did not hide his love for perfume. Arabs developed the distillation. This gave them the means to make perfume. The Crusaders brought Europe into contact with the fragrance tradition of the East. Venice became the center of trade for European perfumery.
The first modern European perfume known, "Eau d ‘Hongrie", was based on alcohol and extracts of mainly lavender and rosemary. The scent was so powerful and attractive that, Elisabeth of Hungary (1305-1380), older than 72 years, received a marriage proposal directly from the Polish king, which she refused.
The center of gravity of the perfume trade shifted to France during the 16th century. At the court of Louis XIV, the popularity of the cologne reached a great height. Personal hygiene was hard to find at the time. There was a general opinion that bathing was unhealthy. Therefore, bathing had to be kept to a minimum. No one smelled fresh, while malodorous fumes were suspected of making people sick. At court, the stench was fought with liters of heavy perfume on the body and other things.
Eau de Cologne was the realization of the Italian Johann Maria Farina (1685-1766), who worked in Cologne, Germany. "The Cologne water" was first sold as a panacea (aqua mirabilis) for all kinds of ailments. It quickly became loved by the European royal houses.
The French Revolution broke out in 1789. Perfume fell out of favor. An overly applied scent could betray your nobility, with dire consequences. That did not last long. Napoleon turned out to be a perfume addict. He loved Eau de Cologne, of which he ordered about fifty bottles every month.
Heavy sensual scents fell out of favor in the 19th century and were associated with disguising poor hygiene and improper sexual behavior. A good middle-class girl smelled of flowers and not of lust. The expensive perfume was reserved for the wealthy elite. The less well-to-do citizens opted for simpler and less expensive scents. The cologne had turned out to be such a friend of all.
Perfume became marketing in the early 20th century. Perfumier Coty, discovered in Corsica that the shape of the perfume bottle could contribute to the success of the fragrance. The artist René Lalique designed true gems and thus started a trend. Perfume was worn on special occasions. A woman did not buy it, she got it.
French fashion designer Paul Poiret was the first couturier to have his own perfume line: Parfums de Rosine. Fashion and perfumery joined in 1911.
Iconic is the perfume Coco Chanel No. 5 which she launched at the time, compiled by the perfumer Ernest Beaux at the request of Chanel. He presented her with a dozen samples in 1921, each with a number. She chose 5.
The perfume slowly penetrated everyday life after WWII. Light scents, whether hidden in creams, lotions, or bath products, came onto the market.
In the 1960s, the youth rebelled against the customs of parents. Perfume was spared. They were looking for alternatives. Patchouli became the star of the Flower Power and Hippie generations. We still love scents like the ancient Greeks.
Musket Balls. Found: Waterloo, Belgium (JN0686)
Battle Of Waterloo
± 1815
The Battle of Waterloo was fought in 1815. Waterloo was in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands (Belgium, 2022). The French army, led by Napoleon, was defeated by two of the armies of the Seventh Coalition. One army, led by the Duke of Wellington, was a British-led coalition of units from the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Hanover, Brunswick, and Nassau. The Second Army was a larger Prussian army led by Field Marshal von Blücker.
The battle was the end of the Napoleonic Wars (= series of worldwide conflicts of Napoleon I), after Napoleon Bonaparte returned to power after his exile on Elba. Napoleon wanted to attack them separately in hopes of destroying them. He successfully attacked the Prussian army, forcing the Prussians northwards to Waterloo. The battle took place in the various places Ligny, Wavre, and Quatre Bas. Near Waterloo, Wellington went into battle against the French and received help from the Prussians. Napoleon attacked with his last reserves in the evening. The Imperial Guard was repulsed and fled. Waterloo was the decisive battle.
Napoleon abdicated as Emperor of the French. It marked the end of his 100-day return from exile. The Battle of Waterloo was a milestone. The site of the battlefield now (2022) forms a large artificial mound constructed from earth from the battlefield itself. On the hill is the monument of the Lion's Mound.
We present a lot of musket bullets fired during the Battle of Waterloo. A musket is a handgun, a precursor to the rifle. It was the first firearm to have a stock, tray, barrel and firing mechanism as standard. From 1530 until the end of the 17th century, it was used as a weapon of war. The lead musket balls were used until 1860.