Middle Ages (Europe)
(476 to 1453)
What happened?
The Middle Ages or Medieval Period (about 500 to 1500) is the time between the Ancient Ages and the Modern Ages in the history of Europe. The term was introduced by Italian humanists that traditionally is situated between the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476) and the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire (1453) or the Renaissance that started in the 14th century. Depending on the focus of historians, however, there is quite a bit of variation in the demarcation of this period. The mediavial period is subdivided into Early, Middle and Late Middle Ages.
Medieval society and civilization arose from three distinct sources: Greco-Roman civilization, associated with the Christian faith - both of which originated further on the territory of the Roman Empire - and mixed with the Germanic traditions, which invading peoples later brought with them.
At the end of the Ancient Age, population cecline, counterurbanisation, collapse of centralized authority and mass migrations of tribes continued in the Early Middle Age. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476) and is used as a period of Western history. Usually this period is allowed to begin ± 500 and end in ± 1500 (1492), with the discovery of the "New World" by Columbus.
The Middle Ages were an important period for Europe. There was a lot of chaos and misery at the beginning of the Middle Ages in Western Europe, due to all kinds of population movements, and at the end of the Middle Ages, the peoples of Europe formed a world power.
The name was coined during the Renaissance of the new era (= the Early Modern Period). This period was between Ancient Age and the Early Modern period (then called the New Era). The people in the Renaissance saw the Middle Ages as an intermediate period characterized by decline. That image is not entirely correct.
Tumbled Stone - Carnelian
± 476 to 1453
Carnelian is a form of quartz, sometimes called Cronelian. The name comes from the Latin word ‘carneus’, which means ‘fleshy’, a reference to the color of the stone. Carnelian has a long history.
The read variety of chalcedony has been known to be used as beads since the Early Neolithic in Bulgaria. The first faceted carnelian beads are described from the middle of the 5th millennium BC. Between 5000 BC and 4000 BC in Pakistan they perforated carnelian that could have been used as jewels. In the 5th-4th millennium BC, the bow drill was used to drill holes into carnelian. A Neo-Assyrian seal, made of carnelian, is showed at the British Museum. The Sumerians filled the tomb of the Queen of Ur with treasure, like carnelian jewels back in 2600 BC.
From Bronze Age Minoan layers at Knossos on Crete, dating 1800 BC, carnelian was recovered in an use in decorative arts. In Ancient Egyptian times, the goddess Isis would use the carnelian stone to protect dead people during their trip. Some parts of the Book of Dead was engraved on carnelian amulets. They were meant to help having a easier access to the other world. Architects wore carnelian stones in order to indicate their social status. Because of its red color, the Egyptians called it ‘sunset’ and used it as symbol of blood.
During Roman times, carnelian was used to make engraved gems for signet or seal rings for imprinting a seal with wax on important documents. Hot wax does not stick to carnelian. They also made jewels for rings with it. They sculpted the carnelian in the shape of a wild animal, meant to give protection and luck. Unlike other gemstones, carnelian was quite widespread with the most important sources being Sardinia, which supplied the Roman Empire and Yemen which supplied Persia and the Arab world. Carnelian was mainly used for jewelry and as one main material for signets and seals. Such a signet ring was often the only piece of jewelry acceptable for Roman men to wear. The popularity was the association with Mars, the Roman god of war and protector of soldiers.
Hebrews would think that carnelian protected them from the plague. In Arabian tradition was thought, carnelian had the power to stop bleeding, heal ulcers and wounds, cure fevers and cleanse the blood of infections, In Islam, carnelian holds special significance. It is believed that the first stone to recognize Mohammed as the prophet of Allah. And that the ring, with carnelian, worn on the ring finger will make someone’s prayers a hundred times more potent. Even today (2021) such rings are sought after across the Muslim world from Morocco to Afghanistan.
Alchemists in the Middle Ages considered carnelian as a hot stone. It had the ability to activate the healing properties of other stones. Surviving engraved gemstones from the Roman period were considered magical as the engraving method was lost during time. Some believed that the images on the stones formed naturally and that such stones were especially powerful talismans. It is no surprise that a stone with such symbolism was used as talisman for warriors and kings seeking military success. It was embedded into scabbards and hilts of weapons in an attempt to make it more effective in combat.
In Renaissance magic, carnelian was engraved with a picture of a warrior or a sword, placed in the home to protect it from storms.
Still today (2021) Buddhists from China, India and Tibet believe in the protecting powers of the carnelian stone. They go on with the Egyptian tradition of having it bezel set with turquoise and lapis lazuli to increase its power.
Replica. Found: France (JN0206)
Alkanet
± 476 to 1463
Alkanet or “ox tongue” root is a plant whose root is used to color dishes. For example, many puddings in the Middle Ages were provided with a beautiful red-pink color. Soak a spoonful of this alkanet in the milk or cream you are going to make pudding, blanc manger, or ice cream. Sift it out before use.
It is an herb that grows in fields and vacant lots, especially in the south of France and Spain.
Medieval Coins
± 476 to 1463
Money has not always existed. People lived in small settlements and grew everything they needed. In certain cases, people bartered to meet needs. Thus, barter was born. Over time, there was a growing need for an object that had a general value to exchange for goods. This is how the concept of money was born. Various objects were already used as means of payment. Beads and shells resemble the money we know (2022). A seller determined the number of beads or shells he wanted.
Shells have been used for thousands of years. Around 700 BC, the first money was made of silver and gold. These were nuggets of a mixture of silver and gold. They differed in size, but you could recognize the value by the stamp. Towards the end of the 7th century a silver coin appeared in parts of Europe. The penny would predominate until the 13th century. Yet coins were used less. Large parts of Europe fell back on barter trade.
During the Early Middle Ages, many peoples were adrift and fought each other. It is the time of Migrations. Trading during this period was difficult. There was hardly any money left. The Roman monetary system was abolished. Charlemagne (742-814) introduced a unit of measure, the pound (= 450 gr.). 20 shillings of 12 pennies each were minted here. Only silver coins were minted.
Between 1000 and 1200 several large cities flourished through trade and industry. These cities were in important places along the shipping routes. The need for money increased again due to international trade. Payment in kind was no longer made in shops and on the market. A famous coin was the fiorino d'oro (= good flower) issued by the Italian city-state of Florence. As a result of trade, more coins came into circulation. Specialist knowledge was needed to tell them apart.
The gold and silversmith became the first money changer and trader. He uses a scale to weigh coins and determined the 'calculation value' of the coin. Coins were displayed on a table ('banca'). Our word bank comes from here. Anyone could make coins. The monarchs soon saw to it.
Replica with Arrow. Found: Spain (JN0315)
Medieval Crossbow
± 800 to ± 1500
The crossbow is a weapon that fires short arrows, also called bolts. The weapon consists of a bow rod mounted on a flask, equipped with a mechanism for holding the string and a trigger mechanism for firing. Sometimes there is a winch to string the bow.
± 200 BC the crossbow was already developed in China. The ancient Greeks and Romans also knew the crossbow. Crossbows were often used between 800 and 1500. Pope Urban II banned the use of crossbows against Christians in 1096. It could be used against heathen.
The design changed around 1400. Then the bow got a flask that could be placed against the shoulder for better aiming. By 1650, the crossbow had a butt end that is also used for the rifles. Since then, the appearance has not changed much. Until after WWII when crossbows are adapted for hunting and are given artificial material instead of wood.
Crossbows were more powerful and accurate than longbows. They could shoot an arrow through armor. The shooter had to keep the bow free while aiming and to shoot more relaxed. Stringing the bow was slower than with a longbow. Each time the crossbow had to be put on the ground for cocking. While an archer could shoot ten arrows, a crossbow could only shoot 6 at the same time. This with manual cocking, with a winch this was less. An archer had to train to shoot, while anyone could fire a crossbow without training. That is why the crossbow was more of a defense weapon in the Middle Ages. The shooter needs cover to reload.