Neogene Period
(23,03 million yrs. BC to 2,58 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Neogene Period is the second of three periods of the Cenozoic Era. It follows the Paleogene and is succeeded by the Quaternary. Its divided in two epochs: the Miocene and the Pliocene Epoch. The Neogene (= New Born) was designated to emphasize that the marine and terrestrials fossils from this time were more related to each other than those of previous period, the Paleogene.
This epoch was a time of temperate climate, but not so cold as in the subsequent Quaternary. This resulted to the emergence of animals and plants that had grassland as their habitat
The mammals and birds continued to evolve to modern forms, while other groups of life remained relatively unchanged. Early hominids, ancestors of humans, appeared in Africa near the end of the period. Some continental movement took place, like the connection of North and South America as the Isthmus of Panama. This cut of the warm ocean currents from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean. The global climate cooled during the Neogene, culminating in a series of continental glaciations in the Quaternary Period.
Halide - Rock Salt
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 2,58 million yrs. BC
Rock salt or halite is often the sealing layer that prevents gas from escaping upwards.
It is a sedimentary rock formed by evaporation (= physical process in which solids in a solvent are concentrated by evaporating the solvent.) Rock salt consists largely of sodium chloride, like table salt, but to a lesser extent also other elements that provide colors.
Carbonate - Orange Calcite
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 2,58 million yrs. BC
Calcite is a type of limestone. The mineral is common and has a wide variety of colors and shapes. Due to its softness, the stone is quite easy to work with. Today (2020) it is a main component of fiberglass and glass wool.
The mineral calcite (CaCo3) consists mainly of calcium carbonate.
In pure crystalline form, calcite is clear, colorless translucent, but due to impurities (such as copper or sodium salts), it can take on a variety of colors, such as gray, blue, violet, green and even black. Often it is opaque white.
Many organisms actively form calcite for use as a skeleton.
Element - Sulfur
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 2,58 million yrs. BC
On Earth, sulfur occurs in large quantities in minerals such as pyrite. In volcanic areas it is found in small quantities in its elemental form. The element itself forms a yellow crystalline solid with a crystal structure.
Halide - Halite (Rock Salt)
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 2,58 million yrs. BC
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of salt layers by evaporation. It consists largely of sodium chloride (NaCl), but also contains other mineral salts to a lesser extent. The different minerals cause different colors of rock salt. Often used in construction industry.
Oxide - Blue Chalcedony
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 2,58 million yrs. BC
Chalcedony can have various colors. The blue chalcedony is light to clear blue, sometimes with a stripe pattern, sometimes just plain in color. The mineral is partially or completely transparent to translucent.
The mineral chalcedony is a pure white quartz variety. The blue color is the result of a physical phenomenon that arises from the microcrystalline structure of the stone. The microscopic crystals scatter the incident light. The blue part of the color spectrum is scattered much more than the red part. Therefore, we see the white stone as blue.
Chalcedony is commonly found in cavities and in rock fractures. A stripe pattern is created when the mineral is formed from flowing silica. Otherwise, the chalcedony is translucent without banding. It forms in hollow spaces of rocks. There it often covers and fills holes and cracks like a plaster. So are geodes. It can be partially or completely filled with chalcedony.
Halide - Rainbow Alien Eye Fluorite
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 2,58 million yrs. BC
A beautiful fluorite with a waxy luster and some dark colored areas with a green center explains the working name “Alien Eye” for the mineral. The outer zones have a diamond shape in the center of each crystal. The first specimen was found in 2007 in the Erongo Massif in Namibia.
This spectacular find of fluorite is comparable to the famous “Alien Eye Fluorite of Namibia”. The specimen is composed of intergrown crystals associated with shiny gold Chalcopyrite. It is a very elegant specimen that was found in Inner Mongolia, China.
To see all the different colors and bring the crystal to its true beauty, it needs a moderate backlight. Like fluorites from Erongo, the effect is worth it. The crystals change color with different lights. Under artificial light, the color is bluish to lavender blue with a nice zoning. In daylight the color is more orange. Alien Eye Fluorites glow with an incredible alien quality.
Gemstones and minerals are said to have beneficial health and spiritual properties. Science has not yet been able to demonstrate such features. Minerals can therefore not be a substitute for traditional medical treatments. However, in addition to the medical world, minerals can provide a spiritual satisfaction to the courage to get well.
Pink Elbaite, Lepidote, Quartz
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 2,58 million yrs. BC
Grotta d’Oggi is an old quarry from where a lot of the best elbaites and tourmalines have been recovered during the 19th century. It is located north of the San Piero in Campo on Elba in Italy. It is near a magnesite quarry in the valley of Fosso Bovalico. The given name means literally “Today’s Cave.” The exploitation for mineral specimens began in 1825.
This specimen comes from this site. It consists of pink elbaite, lepidote and quartz. More information about the minerals can be found at the section "Minerals & Rocks."
Galena, Pyrite, Arsenopyrite, Calcite
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 2,58 million yrs. BC
The beautiful specimen comes from the Trepça Mines in Kosovo. It is a large industrial complex and it’s Europe’s largest lead-zinc and silver ore mine.
Miocene Epoch
(23,03 million yrs. BC to 5,333 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Miocene is the first epoch of the Neogene Period. It comes from the Greek words ‘meiōn’ (= less) and ‘kainos’ (= ‘new’), so it means ‘less recent’. The Miocene Epoch follows the Oligocene and is followed by the Pliocene Epoch.
The Earth went through the Miocene as it cooled into a series of ice ages. The boundaries are not marked by a distinct global event, but consists rather of regional boundaries between the warmer Oligocene and the cooler Pliocene.
The apes arose and diversified, becoming widespread. By the end of the Miocene, the ancestors of the humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees to follow their own evolutionary path. The grasslands continued to expand and forests dwindled in extent. The seas and kelp forests made their first appearance and soon became productive ecosystems. Mammals and birds were well established. Whales, seals and kelp spread. Meanwhile, mountain formation continued in the Himalayas, the Alps and on the western fringes of the Americas.
Deep Ocean Manganese Nodule
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 5,333 million yrs. BC
Manganese nodules are stone concretions on the deep ocean floor. They are formed by the gradual build-up of layers of iron and manganese hydroxides around a central core. They can be found in large quantities and may contain valuable metals. This makes them interesting for mining companies. The size of the nodules can vary from microscopic particles to large specimens over 20cm in diameter. Most are about the size of a golf ball. The surface of a nodule can be smooth to rough. Many have a knobby appearance. The underside of the nodule is rougher than the top because they are buried in the sediment.
Our specimen was collected by the Glomar Explorer in 1979. The ship was built by Howard Hughes. The Glomar Explorer became famous in 1974 because it was used by the CIA to recover parts of the sunken Soviet nuclear submarine K-129.
Oceans Mineral Company (OMCO) commissioned the vessel in late 1979 for experimental mining of manganese nodules at a depth of 5000m from the Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone in the Pacific Ocean. A 2000-ton hydraulic platform, the 'claw', was lowered from the Glomar Explorer. The claw would close on contact with the seabed and scoop up a large amount of material. Hundreds of tons of nodules, after various stages of sediment filtering, could be collected in 12 hours. The process was considered commercially unfeasible. Mining stopped in that area. This location has not been visited since.
Sulfate - Celestine Sulfur
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 5,333 million yrs. BC
La Grasta Mine is a Sulphur mine to the NE of Delia on the island Sicily in Italy. At the end of the 19th century, crude Sulphur were obtained from the extracted ore by liquation. A few years later, the mine closed but small-scale operations continued until the 1930s.
From the 1950s, the mine was equipped with new equipment and modern technologies were applied. The operations ceased in 1987.
The mine is also well known to mineral collectors worldwide for celestine. The mineral forms individual crystals and aggregates in a variety of shapes and colors. Celestine crystals from this locality are already mentioned in 1881. The best specimens have been found in the last period of the mine activity, during the second half of the 1960s and during the 1970s.
Turritella Species
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 5,333 million yrs. BC
Turritella is a genus of medium-sized gastropod (= muscular underside of the body) mollusks. They have been found as fossils in Central Europe since the Cretaceous. Forerunners already existed in the Devonian. Today (2022) a few species still exist. The genus of sea snails produced numerous species, particularly in the Cenozoic Era. The animal has a slender, high spiral shell, about 10 cm high, the seams of which are deeply cut. The operculum (= lid) has a spiral or transverse decoration. The mouth is simply formed. The genus was extended to almost all snails with tall tower-like shells.
The name Turritella comes from the Latin word "turritus" (= turrets") with the diminutive suffix "tella". The shells are quite commonly found as fossils. Enormous amounts of Turritella shells in a carbonate rock is called “Turritella limestone.” Sometimes they are silicified. These finds are often polished and sold as cabochons. But be aware, professionals and many amateurs often realize "turritella agates" that are not made from fossil snails.
The rock in which they are so abundant varies from a soft sandstone to a dense chalcedony. This compacted silicified rock is popular with gem and mineral hobbyists. Purveyors of "new age" ideas about crystal healing use them. More than 1500 fossil species and recent species and subspecies have been named. New species are described every year, although not all of them are valid.
Aquitanian Age
(23,03 million yrs. BC to 20,44 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Aquitanian Age is an era in the geological time scale. It is the first time cut in the Miocene Epoch. The age is succeeded by the Oligocene Chattian and preceded the Burdigalian Age. The base of the Aquitanian is also the base of the Neogene and Miocene. It is a dry and cooling period.
The Aquitanian was named after Aquitaine, an area in southwestern France. The base is defined by the magnetic chronozone C6Cn.2n, the first appearance of the planktonic foraminifer ‘Paraglorotalia kugleri’, and the extinction of the nannoplankton species ‘Reticulofenestra bisecta’.
Found: Indonesia (JN0163)
Petrified Wood - Dipterocarpus
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 20,44 million yrs. BC
Petrified wood is a fossil of a piece of tree. Because the tree has fallen and was covered with a layer of soil or sand, such a fossil is formed. Often a natural disaster is linked to this. The colors seen in a petrified fossil depend on the minerals in the soil. Each mineral provides its own color. From then on, we speak of "petrified" wood, a process that ensures that the characteristics such as bark, annual rings and knots, the hard dark place in the wood, are preserved. Sometimes a rotting process also occurred, forming beautiful crystals with multiple colors.
Dipterocarpus is the third largest and most diverse genus in the family Dipterocarpaceae. They are known for wood, but less recognized for use in traditional medicine. There are ± 70 species that occur in Southeast Asia. This deciduous tree still exists and is common in the tropical rainforest of Southeast Asia. Man was not alive then and the dinosaurs were already extinct for ± 45 million years.
There is also petrified wood from before the existence of the dinosaurs. There is no longer any trace of wood. It consists of 100% stone. It has an average hardness of 7 on the Mohs scale. This makes it about as hard as granite. Sculptors find it a less good material to work with. It can be polished, revealing its beautiful colors.
Amber
± 23 million yrs. BC
Our specimen was found in lignite deposits in Indonesia. Lignite or brown coal is a fossil fuel. This means that it consists of plant remains that are converted into carbon and other chemical compounds in deep layers of the earth.
It is an intermediate stage in the formation of coal. If the pressure and especially the temperature increase, lignite will turn into coal. The relatively young coal of Sumatra has been carbonized to such an extent by volcanic activity in the area that it was able to coalesce the peat at an accelerated rate thanks to the high soil temperature.
Amber from Sumatra is a young amber, usually a life category of 20-30 million years BC. There are not often clear inclusions. They contain very few insects, compared to other amber. This amber has dark areas of color in its reddish-cognac body that resemble leopard spots.
Tooth 10,2 cm. Found: North Carolina, US (JN0217-0)
Shark - Carcharocles Megalodon
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 2,58 million yrs. BC (Probably ± 22 million yrs. BC)
The megalodon (= big tooth) appeared ± 23 million years BC and died from ± 3,6 million years BC- ± 1,5 million years BC. He dominated the seas with almost no enemies. The fish could reach a length of 18 m and its mouth could open 2 m.
Fossils of the megalodon are regularly found. The rest of the cartilage skeleton has usually decayed. The rather large teeth have a distinctive pyramidal shape.
It is unknown why these sharks could get so big. An abundance of marine mammals may have been a cause.
The Carcharocles is believed to have been the largest shark as well as the largest fish that ever lived. There are similarities with the Carcharodon carcharias, the great white shark, which is why they are probably related.
It looked like a fat torpedo-like fish. His body weight is estimated to be between 30 tons (= 30.000 kg) and 65 tons (= 65.000 kg). Females were larger than males.
Burdigalian Age
(20,44 million yrs. BC to 15,97 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Burdigalian Age is a time cut in the early Miocene. Preceded by the Aquitanian and succeeded by the Langhian, the Burdigalian was the first and longest warming period of the Miocene.
The name Burdigalian comes from Burdigalia, the Latin name for the city of Bordeaux in France. The base of the Burdigalian is defined by the first appearance of the planktonic foraminifer ‘Globigerinoides altiaperturus’. The Victoriapithecus, a human evolutionary, possible evolved during this time interval.
Insect - Dasyhelea Australis Antiqua
± 19,3 million yrs. BC to ± 13,4 million yrs. BC (Probably ± 17 million yrs. BC)
The insect is usually called Dasyheleae australis antiqua. It is a specific mosquito species closely related to the modern (2022) Dasyheleae australis australis which inhabits the islands of Islas Juan Fernandez in Chile. The adult specimens are often referred to as "biting midges". They are also known as “no-see-ums”. However, these insects do not suck the blood of animals, but the nectar of flowers, which is an unusual feeding behavior within the family Ceratopogonidae. Such species are important as pollinators of plants.
They generally measure 1-3mm in length. They have short legs, dark spots on the wings and stinging mouthparts. The larvae of this species are characterized by an anal segment with retractable hind prolegs. These larvae live in very moist conditions, such as pools of water in tree stumps, in leaf axils or in surface water.
Our pupa was in the fossil assemblage in the concretions of the Barstow Formation. The formation has been uncovered in the Mojave Desert, near Barstow, California. It is a series of limestones, conglomerates, siltstones, shale, and sandstones. Diptera, such as 'Dasyhelea australis antiqua', is one of the most commonly present arthropods in the Barstow Formation.
Langhian Age
(15,97 million yrs. BC to 13,82 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Langhian Age is a time division of the Miocene Epoch of the Neogene Period. It comes after the Burdigalian and followed by the Serravallian Age. Its situated in the Middle Miocene. The Langhian is named after the region of Langhe, north of the town of Ceva in northern Italy. The Langhian Age was a continuing warming period.
The lower boundary has been set near the base defined by the first appearance of foraminifer ‘Praeorbulina glomerosa’. It also coval with the top of the magnetic chronozone C5Cn. 1n. In Europe and North America other terms are used for this period. The Langhian name has been in use from 2009, before then, there was no official stage.
Internal Mold. Found: Miste, The Netherlands (JN0261-1)
Internal Mold. Found: Miste, The Netherlands (JN0261-2)
Internal Mold. Found: Miste, The Netherlands (JN0261-3)
Internal Mold. Found: Miste, The Netherlands (JN0261-4)
Internal Mold. Found: Miste, The Netherlands (JN0261-5)
Gastropod (Unidentified Species)
± 15 million yrs. BC
Gastropods are snails and belong to the mollusks. They emerge from the Cambrian. Clear increases in the Cretaceous and Paleogene eras have been established by the fossils found. They occur both on land and in the sea. Those in the sea are predators that sometimes drill holes in other shells to eat them.
Usually, gastropods build their shell with aragonite. This is quickly soluble in groundwater, and the shell does not usually become a fossil. The filling of the inside of the cochlea is then found as a stone mold. Fossils of gastropod are very common. The number of prehistoric fossil species of gastropods approaches more than 15.000 species.
Ammonites are sometimes confused with fossil snails. Ammonites are a group of extinct squid, another type of mollusk. Like snails, they had a spiral shell. But they had several tentacle-like arms.
Internal molds are the petrified prints of the inside of an organism. These fossils occur, especially in bivalves. Fossils, especially aragonite, can dissolve completely in groundwater. The inside then remains and can be found as a fossil.
When we speak of internal molds, the remains of organisms can be completely replaced by new material. Wood residues char or grind. In the latter case, the wood is replaced cell by cell by silica. The structure is beautifully preserved.
In the Ordovician several forms of snails already lived in various waters. The first land-dwelling snails appear in the Carboniferous in Europe. They were sparsely scattered up to the Cretaceous Era.
The Paleozoic species are among the more primitive mollusks, although some still (2021) exist. During the Carboniferous period, snails already had the shapes and sizes of the current (2021) species, but that is only based on the appearance of the shell. The ancestors of most modern snails did not appear until the Mesozoic era.
Sea Urchin - Arbacina Monilis
± 15 million yrs. BC
Arbacina monilis is an extinct genus of sea urchin that lived in the Neogene. They are small at about 1 cm in diameter and 0,5 cm in height.
Sea Urchin - Astrodapsis Spatiosus
± 15 million yrs. BC
These active predators are sand dollars, a highly flattened form of sea urchin of the order Clypeasteroida. They live of larvae, algae, and crustaceans in shallow marine environments in the sand or mud, just below the ebb line. Living, they are covered in velvety spines that they use to move. The five oval shapes at the top are part of the respiratory system.
Sea Urchin - Scutella Species
± 15 million yrs. BC
Scutella is an extinct genus of sand dollars (= flat sea urchins). They are the ancestors of the actual sand dollars. They lived from the Oligocene to the Quaternary. At that time, these flat sea urchins were quite common. The true, slow-moving semi-infaunal (= aquatic animals buried in the sediment of clay, sand, or gravel) detrivores (= detritus eater).
Fish - Merluccius Merluccius
± 15 million yrs. BC
The common hake is a European saltwater fish. It can have a maximum length of 1,4 m with a weight of 15 kg. Fossils were found in Oligocene deposits.
Fish - Echiodon Heinzelini
± 15 million yrs. BC
The extinct ray-finned fish was named after Belgian paleontologist Jean de Heinzelini.
Fish - Hoplobrotula Difformis
± 15 million yrs. BC
The extinct genus of ray-finned fish is a needlefish that had a snakelike appearance.
Fish - Dentex Maroccanus
± 15 million yrs. BC
The ray-finned fish has a body without stripes. At the base of pectoral fin, they have a small black spot. They prefer a bottom of gravel or rubble from 20 to 500 meters deep.
Fish - Otarionichthys Occultus
± 15 million yrs. BC
The ray-finned fish is an extinct carnivore, first appearing 33,9 million years BC.
Fish - Phycis Species
± 15 million yrs. BC
The genus Phycis is a ray-finned fish in the East Atlantic fork cod family. The name comes from the Greek 'phykon' (= 'seaweed'), because of the living habits between the seaweed.
Fish - Ovigadiculus Brinki
± 15 million yrs. BC
An otolith is a structure in the inner ear of fish. The name comes from the ancient Greek 'ous' and 'lithos'. Which means 'ear' and 'stone' respectively. They consist of calcium carbonate crystals and a gelatinous mass.
No information about the fish is currently (2021) available. You are free to contact us with more concrete details.
Fish - Phycis Species (2)
± 15 million yrs. BC
The animal is found on hard and sandy-muddy bottoms at 100-650 m. During the day hiding between rocks. They feed on small fish and invertebrates.
Fish - Soleidae Species Juvenile
± 15 million yrs. BC
Soleidae (= soles) are flatfish that live on the bottom covered by mud and feed on crustaceans and other invertebrates.
Fish - Diaphus Debilis
± 15 million yrs. BC
Diaphus debilis is an extinct genus of ray-finned lanternfish. The saltwater fish prefered a tropical climate and a depth of up to 100 m.
Fish - Pristigenys Rhombicus
± 15 million yrs. BC
Pristigenys rhombicus is an extinct ray-finned fish from the family of bigeyes (= Priacanthidae). Their large eyes are suitable for nocturnal hunting.
Fish - Dentex Congoensis
± 15 million yrs. BC
Dentex congoensis is a ray-finned fish of the sea bream family, a ± 20 cm perch, a carnivore that feeds on fish, and to a lesser extent on tunicates and molluscs.
Fish - Trisopterus Concavus
± 15 million yrs. BC
Trisopterus concavus is an extinct genus of small cods.
Impactite - Ries Crater
± 14,5 million yrs. BC
The Nördlinger Ries is a filled impact crater in southern Germany with a diameter of about 23 km. The rocks found were thought to be of volcanic origin. In 1960 it was proved that it was a meteorite impact, the Ries impact. Ries is derived from Raetia, a tribe of Raetians lived in the area in pre-Roman times.
It is the best-preserved enormous impact crater on Earth. The rim of the crater runs like a ridge along the horizon and is covered with forest. Originally there was a lake, which has silted up and dried up.
Conifer Cone - Pinus Urani
± 23,03 million yrs. BC to ± 5,333 million yrs. BC (Probably ± 14,18 million yrs. BC)
The pine-cone is a conifer cone or seed cone, and is a lignified female cone with seed scales in many gymnosperms.
It is not a fruit such as is formed from an ovary in the flowering plant. The cone of pine ears is called pinecone, pine cone, cone mast, pineapple or pine plug. The ripe cone of the pine remains intact. Conifer cones have scales that close in moist weather and open in dry weather. The seeds lie open between the scales instead of in a closed fruit. The seeds of the pine have membranes, so that they can move with the wind.
A pine pill is the seed of a pine. The Pinus urani is almost exclusively known from the Miocene of Europe. The cones are 30 - 60 mm long and usually ovoid in width. They become asymmetrical when the scales are open.
Cones of this fossil species are very distinctive. Mainly because of their asymmetry and the hook-like curved branching on the seed scales.
Serravallian Age
(13,82 million yrs. BC to 11,63 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Serravallian Age is a period in the Miocene Epoch on the Neogene Period. It follows the Langhian and is followed by the Tortonian Age.
The age was named after the town of Serravalle Scrivia in Italy. The base of the Serravallian is at the first occurrence of fossils of the nanoplankton species 'Sphenolithus heteromorhus'.
Insect - Schistomerus Californense
± 19,3 million yrs. BC to ± 13,4 million yrs. BC (Probably ± 13,4 million yrs. BC)
Schistomerus californense is an extinct species of predaceous diving beetle in the family of water beetles. It is the most common beetle found in the concretions of the Barstow Formation. Usually, the fossils are kept in three dimensions.
The larval stages of the beetle are the most represented. Adult larvae range from 4,5-5,5 mm in length. Other stages of the beetle are also present in the formation. Only a few adults have been found. Several specimens were preserved with intact internal anatomy. Both respiratory tubes and parts of the nervous system of the organism have been described.
The Barstow Formation dates from the middle Miocene (± 19,3-13,4 million years BC) in the Neogene Period. It lends its name to the Barstovian North American land mammal age. It is known for its abundant vertebrate fossils, including bones, teeth, and footprints. The formation is also known for the fossiliferous concretions in the upper layers. These contain three-dimensionally preserved arthropods. The concretions (= spherical sedimentary rocks) are calcareous and vary from 0,125 cm to 125 cm. The fossils are three-dimensional and sometimes show internal anatomy.
Shrimp - Archaebranchinecta Barstowensis
± 19,3 million yrs. BC to ± 13,4 million yrs. BC (Probably ± 13,4 million yrs. BC)
Archaebranchinecta barstowensis is a species of fairy shrimp (= Anostraca) that lived during the Middle Miocene. The fecal material (= fecal) is abundant in the sedimentary rocks of the Barstow Formation in California. These concretions of the Barstow Formation preserve both immigrant arthropod communities and rare native arthropod communities. The Archaebranchinecta barstowensis is one of the dominant fossil representatives. A limited number of whole specimens have been found. They represent the “best preserved fairy shrimp fossil” known to date (2022).
Anostraca is one of the four orders of crustaceans. They live in spring pools and saltwater lakes around the world. They have been found in deserts, ice-covered mountain lakes and ice in Antarctica. Usually they are 6-25mm long. Most species have 20 body segments. The body has no shield. They swim upside down and feed by filtering food from the water or by scraping algae from surfaces. They themselves are an important food for birds and fish. Some are farmed and harvested for use as fish food. Currently there are 300 species.
Fairy shrimp have been appearing since the Ordovician period. The animals, meanwhile, have deviated from the mainline Brachiopods since they colonized freshwater. It is believed that the transition was the result of selection pressure to escape hunting in the seas.
Tortonian Age
(11,63 million yrs. BC to 7,246 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Tortonian Age represents all rocks deposited globally during this period. It is named after the region Tortona, in the Italian Piedmont. It is preceded by the Serravallian and followed by the Messinian Age.
The basis of the Tortonian is defined by the last occurences of the nannoplankton species ‘Discoaster kugleri’ and the planktonic foraminifer ‘Globigerinoides subquadratus’. The base is associated by the short magnetic chronozone C5r.2n.
Shark - Cosmopolitodus Hastalis
± 10 million yrs. BC
Fossil shark teeth often take the color of the surrounding sediment. Often, they are black or gray. They are quite hard, consist of calcium phosphates and fossilize well.
The Cosmopolitodus is an extinct genus of sharks. The Cosmopolitodus hastalis is currently (2021) the only species. The shark is also known as the broad tooth mako. It is an extinct mackerel shark that lived during the Oligocene to the Early Pleistocene. Its teeth can reach about 7,5 cm.
It is believed it is an ancestor to the great white shark, and most likely would have been one of the major predators in the ecosystem, preying upon small whales and other mammals.
Bivalves (Different Species)
± 10 million yrs. BC
Bivalves belong to the class Bivalvia of the mollusk level. The Dutch name for Bivalves is Bivalven.
The valves of the shell itself are asymmetrical, but the right and left valves are in many cases roughly mirror images of each other. Some shells consisted of aragonite (= quickly soluble lime) and fossilize moderately. Usually only the stone core is preserved. Other bivalves consist of calcite and fossilize well. They are very common. Their diversity has increased during the Mesozoic Era.
Gastropods (Different Species)
± 10 million yrs. BC
Gastropod is the scientific name for snail. They belong to the level of the mollusks. Gastropods occur in fossils from the mid-Cambrian era. They have a marked increase in diversity in the Upper Cretaceous and Paleogene periods.
They occur in this way on land and in the sea. Gastropods that live in the sea are predators that sometimes drill holes in other shells to eat them. They usually build their shell with aragonite. This is quickly soluble in groundwater, and the shell does not often become a fossil. The inside of the cochlea is then found as a steinkern or internal mold. Gastropod fossils are very common.
Bivalves (Unidentified Species)
± 10 million yrs. BC
Bivalves are a class of mollusks that have a shell. The shell consists of 2 valves that are articulated with a hinge. That is why they are called bivalves. The two valves are held together by one or more sphincters that show a clear attachment site of the valves. These are muscle impressions.
The first bivalves appeared in the Cambrian ± 500 million years BC. After the Permian Triassic extinction they increased explosively. This is because their competitors have dealt a huge blow to the brachiopods here. Many brachiopods also disappeared there. The bivalves were given more space and developed into a diverse group that still exist today. About 9.200 modern species live in the world (2021), in contrast to the brachiopods, where there are only 200 species left.
Gastropod (Unidentified Species)
± 10 million yrs. BC
Gastropods are snails and mollusks. They emerge from the Cambrian. Significant increase in the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods has been established by the fossils found. They occur both on land and in the sea. Those in the sea are predators that sometimes drill holes in other shells to eat them.
Usually, gastropods build their shell with aragonite. This is quickly soluble in groundwater, and the shell usually does not become a fossil. The filling of the inside of the cochlea is then found as a stone core. Fossils of gastropods are very common. The number of prehistoric fossil species of gastropods approaches more than 15.000 species.
Ammonites are sometimes confused with fossil snails. Ammonites are a group of extinct squids, another species of mollusks. Like snails, they had a spiral shell. But they had several tentacle-like arms.
Tooth B. Found: Antwerp, Belgium (JN0172)
Shark - Hexanchidae
± 10 million yrs. BC
Cow sharks are Hexanchidae are the most primitive sharks. They are between 1,5 and 5,5 m long. Modern species would still resemble their ancestors. Typical feature are the six gill slits as opposed to five.
Hexanchidae are ovoviviparous, with the mother retaining the egg cases in her body until they hatch. These sharks feed on relatively large fish, including other sharks, as well on crustaceans and carrion.
The only fossil records of cow sharks consist of mainly isolated teeth. Skeletal remains have been found from the Jurassic Period, but are very rare.
Burrfish - Chilomycterus
± 10 million yrs. BC
Chilomycterus belong to the genus of ray-finned fish. They have fixed, non-movable spines. While of other burrfish can move their spines. They are medium- to large-sized fish and are found in shallow temperate and tropical seas.
These burrfish or porcupinefish have the abilty to inflate their body by swallowing water or air. Their larger volume protects them from enemies, while their spines provide a second defense. They look like a ball. A second defense mechanism is provided by the sharp spines, which radiate outwards when the fish is inflated.
Some species are poisonous, having tetrodotoxin in their internal organs. This neurotoxin is at least 1200 times more potent than cyanide. Porcupinefish have few predators, althought adults are sometimes eaten by sharks and killer whales.
Their mouths are strong enough to crush their prey. The throat teeth are pressed against a mouth plate in the roof of the gill when chewing. The captured food is made suitable for ingestion by grinding it fine. Throat teeth and mouth plates completely take over the task of mouth teeth.
Tooth 7,9 cm. Found: Hawthorne Formation, South Carolina, US (JN0217-1)
Shark - Otodus Megalodon
± 10 million yrs. BC to ± 5 million yrs. BC (Probably ± 10 million yrs. BC)
The Otodus megalodon lived in tropical regions. While it was previously claimed that they could grow up to 20 m, the latest studies (2021) of the teeth show that they could reach between 14 and 15 m in length. Regardless, they remain among the largest of carnivores if it were not for the best hunters ever.
Researchers suspect that some megalodons lived in the Pacific until relatively recently. There were already people then, but they never had to deal with it.
Climate change has led to the extinction of many small and medium-sized baleen whales, the megalodon's main prey. Their hunting technique was probably like today's white shark, a descendant of the megalodon. The surviving cetaceans, such as dolphins, were too agile or resided in the polar regions. In the meantime, the killer whales developed, which in combination with a lack of food led to their extinction.
Tooth. Found: Cadzand, The Netherlands (JN0170)
Shark - Cosmopolitodus Hastalis
± 23 million yrs. BC to ± 2,5 million yrs. BC (Probably ± 8 million yrs. BC)
It is an extinct mackerel shark believed to be an ancestor of the great white shark and was one of the most dangerous predators of its time.
Messinian Age
(7,246 million yrs. BC to 5,333 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Messinian Age is the last period in the Miocene Epoch. It comes after the Tortonian and is followed by the Zanclean Age, the earliest period in the Pliocene Epoch. The period is named after the Italian city of Messina on Sicily. Fossils were found among an alternation of plaster layers. The base is the first occurrence of the planktonic forma species ‘Globorotalia conomiozea’.
During the Messinian Age, the Mediterranean Sea briefly became an endorheic basin, cut off from the Atlantic Ocean about 6 million years BC. This gave rise to the Messinian salinity crisis. Due to the closure of the Strait of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean Sea drained largely. The sea level dropped to 1,5 km and the evaporation of the seawater created extensive deposits of gypsum, lime, and rock salt. This was not the first time an evaporation on this scale happed during Earth’s history. This was until now (2021) the last time this happened. The climate was greatly affected throughout the Mediterranean, which was much drier than it is now (2021). This also explains the patterns of erosion and the occurrence of species of animals and plants in the region.
Found: Crater Del Hoyazo, Nijar, Almeria, Andalousia, Spain (JN0781-1)
Silicate - Almandine
± 7,246 million yrs. BC to ± 5,333 million yrs. BC
The Crater del Hoyazo is a stratovolcano in the Alhamilla Mountains in the south of the Almeria Province of Spain. Its origins are about 6,2 million years BC. The valley lying in the west of the hill is actually the crater of the ancient volcano.
Shark - Carcharodon Carcharias
± 8 million yrs. BC to ± 5 million yrs. BC
For a long time, it was believed that the Carcharodon descended from the Megalodon. This was based on their similar body shape and ecological roles. In the meantime, that view has been revised. Fossil finds of the Carcharodon hastalis and C. hubbelli were discovered with a similar tooth shape. The fossil teeth indicate an evolution of the serrated edge like mako sharks and not like the Megalodon. The change in the diet from mainly fish to mammals would be the explanation. Around the world, the great white shark is a well-known apex predator that dominates with its ferocity.
The great white shark or the Carcharodon carcharias has been around for millions of years and evolved into a deadly hunter as it spread through the world's seas. The animal is best known for the blockbuster “Jaws” however it is not a monster that attacks all people it encounters, but an animal. The shark does not hunt maliciously. His methods are therefore no less brutal. The attacks of the great white on humans are quite rare. There were about sixty recorded white shark attacks on humans in 2020, some of which were fatal. The attack method is the same as with other prey, but the animal lets go of the human and disappears. It is thought that the great white shark does not really like human flesh and prefers other mammals.
This specimen was recovered from the Miocene Era of North Carolina and comes from an ancestor species of today's great white shark. The Carcharodon hastilis and hubbelli had similar tooth shapes with varying degrees. It suggests a clear evolutionary path of early mako sharks. The estimated age is 8 to 5 million years BC. The black color is normal for this site.
The dreaded shark is found in all major oceans around the world. Some specimens have been found to grow up to 6 meters in length and weigh more than 2200 kg. On average, the great white measures 4 to 5 meters and weighs about 2000 kg. The creature needs constant food and a large hunting area. It makes studying and keeping the species captive for extended periods of time difficult.
Very few animals can surpass the great white shark. It feeds on dolphins, seals, and turtles. Sometimes they catch fish and birds. As the shark approaches its prey, the shark can use a special electro-receiving sense in its nose to sense electric fields given off by creatures. This ability helps them pinpoint their target's precise locations before they strike. The prey that unfortunately gets into the eyes of the great white shark faces a prolonged and relentless struggle. The shark lurks beneath its prey, preparing for the moment to strike. It launches forward, grabs its prey and clings to it with a bite. The teeth are triangular and have a serrated edge. They can grow to 7,5 cm. A shark can have 3 to 4 rows of teeth. The teeth remain sharp because the teeth are replaced regularly. The rows of teeth are used to cut into the flesh of the prey as the prey is pulled underwater.
Rhinoceros - Aceratherium Porpani
± 7,246 million yrs. BC to ± 5,333 million yrs. BC
Aceratherium was a genus of rhinoceroses during the Miocene in Eurasia. The name comes from the Greek 'a keratos therion' which means "hornless beast". The new rhino has been named Aceratherium porpani in honor of Popran Vachajitpan, who donated the fossils to science. The name Aceratherium is often used for many species because they are polled. The gender thus turns into a wastebasket. Over the years, revisions have removed most species to the point where only three species are now generally recognized.
Fossils were collected by the local villagers in the Tha-Chang sand quarries in 2013. After studying the remains, scientists could conclude that they have discovered a new species in the genus Aceratherium. The new species has a mixture of primitive and derivative features that differ from the Aceratherium incisivum and Aceratherium depereti species. Our specimen is a heavily petrified fossil with partial roots. The date corresponds to the latest Miocene epoch of the associated fauna and flora in the site.
The medium-sized animal reached 2,3 m in length with a height of about 1,2 m. It weighed almost 1 ton. The dentition suggests that it was a grazer that fed on leaves and soft vegetables. Proportionally, the Aceratherium was similar to a tapir. It had rather long limbs compared to other rhinoceros families. Males had tusk-like incisors that were much larger than those of the females.
Tooth Quality A. Found: Florida, US (JN0168)
Shark - Carcharhinus
± 6 million yrs. BC
Carcharhinus is a genus of requiem sharks and has 31 species. These sharks have a long and streamlined body and a long slender caudal fin with a lobed tip. They are mainly found in the Pacific and Indian oceans. They can grow up to 3 meters long and weigh 200 kilos. Some species occur mainly in open water (such as the oceanic whitetip shark), others are found on or near coral reefs such as the gray reef shark.
Requiem sharks are migratory, live-bearing sharks of warm seas (sometimes of brackish or fresh water). They are involved in a large proportion of attacks on humans, among the top five species. However, due to the difficulty in identifying individual species, a degree of inaccuracy exists in attack records.
Pliocene Epoch
(5,333 million yrs. BC to 2,58 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Pliocene Epoch was a time of global cooling after the warmer Miocene. The epoch follows the Miocene and is followed by the Pleistocene Epoch. It is the second and youngest epoch of the Neogene Period. The name comes from the Greek words ‘pleion’ (= ‘more’) and ‘kainos’ (= ‘new’ or ‘recent’) and means roughly “continuation of the recent”, referring to the essentially modern marine mollusk fauna. In ancient texts Pliocene is also spelled as Pleiocene.
The Pliocene is divided into two ages: the Zanclean and Piacenzian Age. There are differences across the globe when stating the end of the Pliocene. When drawing up the official geological timescale of the ICS, the Southern European division was chosen over the Northern European. Because of the transition was much drastic about 2,588 million years BC, it appears the boundary between the Pliocene and the Pleistocene will come to the first boundary to lay down. However, there are still (2021) discussions about it.
The cooling and drying of the global environment may have contributed to the enormous spread of grasslands and savannas during this time. The change in vegetation was a major factor in the rise of long-legged grazers who came to live in these areas. Mammal mega-faunas existed on several continents. During this time, some apes came down from trees and started to exist on the plains in Africa. The first humanoids to be classified as Hominini appeared during the Pliocene. It is believed that ‘Australopithecus evolved in the late Pliocene.
The epoch was marked by a few significant tectonic events that created the landscape we know today (2021). The Panamanian land bridge between North and South America appeared during the Pliocene. Migrations of plants and animals appeared into new habitats. This led to the migration of armadillo, ground sloth, opossum, and porcupines from South to North America. Dogs, cats, bears and horsed invaded in the opposite direction.
During the Pliocene India and Asia collided also. It formed the Himalayas. The Cascades, Rockies, Appalachians, and the Colorado plateaus were uplifted in North America. The end of the epoch marketed the elevation of the Sierra Nevada to the west. In Europe, many mountains built up, including the Alps, which were folded and thrusted.
The long-term cooling gave way to the ice ages of the Pleistocene. Large ice caps started to develop, and Antarctica became frozen as today (2021). The cause of this cooling is not yet known. There are some theories about it. Although, the climate of the Pliocene was much warmer than in 2021. With less ice at the poles, it is thought the sea level was about 30 meters higher.
Carbonate - Calcite
± 5,333 million yrs. BC to ± 2,58 million yrs. BC
The quarry at Montaldo di Casto, Italy is abandoned. The excavated tephitic lavas are commonly wrong defined as basalts.
This "basalt" is a dense, hard and tough rock admirably suited for road gravel and any stonework requiring wear resistance. In these tephritic lava flows bubbles. Sometimes they are occupied by perfect tan golden spheres of Calcite. Our chunk of black baslat bears small bubbles of just that form and color.
Luster is a peculiar 'velvety' one that defies description. The calcite is translucent an, allowing light from behind the specimen to pass through the spheres.
Insect - Libellula Doris
± 5,333 million yrs. BC to ± 2,58 million yrs. BC
Libellula doris is an extinct genus of dragonflies. Usually, they are called skimmers. Larvae of these insects have been found in the Neogene of Germany, France, and Italy. A libel is a flying insect. About 3000 extant species of true dragonflies are known (2022). Most are tropical. Dragonflies can be identified by a pair of large, condensed eyes, two pairs of strong, transparent wings, sometimes with several spots, and an elongated body. In flight, many dragonflies are conspicuous by brilliant iridescent or metallic colors caused by structural coloration.
Dragonflies are predatory insects both in their aquatic nymphal stage (= immature form for adult form) and adults. The nymphal stage lasts up to five years in some species, and the adult stage can last up to ten weeks. They are fast, agile fliers and capable of precise ambushes from the air. Sometimes they migrate across oceans and often live near water.
Fossils of very large dragonfly-like insects are found in rocks from the Upper Carboniferous. These griffin flies had a wingspan of up to about 75 cm. However, they are not dragonflies, but distant relatives. The first representatives of today's dragonfly families date from the late Jurassic. The structure and way of life of dragonflies has not changed much in the last 150 million years.
The eggs are deposited by the female with her leg apparatus. In many species, the female is held by the male who fertilizes her during mating. In damselflies and glaziers, elongated eggs are deposited in aquatic plants through ovipositor holes. The other dragonflies lay round eggs in the mud, just below the surface of the water or by scattering over the water. Most eggs develop into larvae in two to four weeks. A newly hatched larva is sensitive for cold. The first molts are quickly completed in order to be able to hibernate afterwards.
Larvae resemble adults. The eyes are smaller, the body is shorter, and the wings are missing. The larvae remain underwater from a few months to five years. They are very voracious and hunt small aquatic animals and even small fish. They themselves can be eaten by fish, frogs, aquatic insects and even their own species.
Zanclean Age
(5,333 million yrs. BC to 3,6 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Zanclean Age is the earliest period of the Pliocene Period. It is preceded by the Messinian Age of the Miocene Epoch and succeeded by the Piacenzian Age of the Pliocene Period. The name was introduced in 1868 by Giuseppe Sequenza in literature. It was named after Zancla, the Pre-Roman name for the Italian city of Messina on Sicily.
The base is defined by the extinction of the calcareous nannoplankton species ‘Triquetrorhabdulus rugosus’ and the first appearance of nonplankton ‘Ceratolithus acutus’.
The beginning is marked by the Zanclean flood, where water from the Atlantic Ocean poured in and deluged the Mediterranean Basin and end the Messinian salinity crisis, a cycle of partial or nearly complete drying-up of the Mediterranean Sea.
Found: San Joaquin Valley, California, US (JN0852)
Sea Urchin - Dendraster Gibbsii
± 5 million yrs. BC
This Dendraster gibbsii, more around 5 million years BC, was fossilized at the bottom of the seabed. The body plan of the animal has been preserved in detail, with the complicated skeletons still clearly visible. This particular fossil is quite common in the San Joaquin Valley deposit, specifically the Etchegoin Formation in the Kettleman Hills. The petroleum in this region may also cause a light natural stain on the item. This specimen is also believed to be a fossilized sand dollar from Pliocene deposits. It is a remnant of a time when the valley was home to an inland sea between the Sierra Nevada Mountains and the California Coast Ranges.
Sand dollars are echinoderms, an ancient and broad family of animals that includes starfish, sea cucumbers and sea urchins. Like most echinoderms, this species exhibits a five-point radial symmetry that is reflected in the patterns on the surface of the fossil. This pattern is a series of pores arranged in a petal pattern. A common feature is the flat skeleton, and they live on the seabed. Only the larvae can “swim” freely. Sand dollars live in mean low water and usually on sandy or muddy bottoms. Their spines allow them to slowly crawl through the sand or dig around a hole. The spines are covered with fine cilia. They don't have a real mouth. Tubular feet in the pores carry food to food grooves at the bottom center of the skeleton. The food consists of plankton and organic particles from the sandy bottom. The color of these specimens is unique among sand dollar fossils due to the presence of petroleum in the San Joaquin Valley deposits, which gives the stone a natural stain.
Piacenzian Age
(3,6 million yrs. BC to 2,58 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Piacenzian Age is the last period in the Pliocene. It follows the Zanclean Age and precedes the Gelasian Age of the Quaternary Period. The period was named after the Italian city of Piacenza. The base of Piacenzian is defined by the magnetic chronozone C2An (Gauss) and the extinction of the planktonic foraminifera ‘Globorotalia margaritae’ and ‘Pulleniatina primalis’.
Carbon levels during the Piacenzian were like those of 2021. Making this age, with global mean temperature 2-3 °C higher and the sea levels about 20 meters above than today (2021). While only a million years long, the Piacenzian was an eventful age. It saw the run up to the first ice age and the formation of the land bridge between North and South America. This was also the age of “Lucy, Austrolopithecus afarensis” and the radiation of robust and gracile hominids which produced the genus ‘Homo’. High latitude temperatures dropped, the ice sheets gathered, and ocean circulation patterns approached their present (2021) form all over the globe.
In Europe, the little bear ‘Ursus minimus’ died out along with rodents like ‘Mimomys’, which were adapted to temperature or subtropical climates and open woodlands. They were replaced by species much more suited for colder environments. Rapid changes in pollen, foraminifera, and mollusk are indicated at the same time. Several shorter “cold spells” before the plunge at the end of the Piacenzian are suggested.
A drying trend was more pronounced in East Africa, where the global aridification was augmented by regional uplifts casting rain shadows over parts of the area. The Great American Interchange allowed the long-isolated North and South American vertebras to mix. Many extinctions originally attributed to the Interchange, particularly occurred much earlier in the Late Miocene or in the Pleistocene.
(Large). Found: Java, Indonesia (JN0234)
Bivalve - Unidentified species (Probably - Paphia Papilionacea)
± 3 million yrs. BC
Paphia is a genus of salwater clam, a marine bivalve mollusk in the family Veneridae, the Venus clams. This species often lived in shallow seas with 10 to 72 meters of sandy bottom or brown soft mud bottom in the subtidal zone.
Sea Urchin - Heliophora Orbicularis
± 3 million yrs. BC
Heliophora orbicularis is a genus of sea urchins. It is also known as the West African sand dollar. They still exist (2021). They have an extremely variable circular to oval-shaped test. The notches can be limited to the rear edge.
Tektite - Aouelloul Glass
± 3 million yrs. BC
Aouelloul is an impact crater in Mauretania. It is located about 50 km south-east of Atar, in the Akchar Desert, part of the Sahara Desert. The age of the crater is estimated at 3 million years BC. The crater is approximately circular and 390 m wide.
Tektites are found around the crater. Very few meteorites have been found. The glass is dark in color. Sometimes, it contains nickel-iron particles. These were trapped in the glass at the time of impact and are part of the asteroid.
If a crater is incredibly old, often none of the meteorites survive. When particles of it are trapped in glass it is possible to recognize its cosmic origin. These tektites are quite rare.