French Colonial Era (Ivory Coast)

(1893 to 1958)

What happened?

Ivory Coast or Côte d’Ivoire officially became a French colony in 1893. Boundary treaties were negotiated with Liberia and the United Kingdom. A Malinké chief, Samori Ture, fought against the French until 1898. The Malinké are the largest West African ethnic group.

In the early years, French troops were penetrating inland to establish new posts. They encountered much resistance from locals. Also, in areas where treaties of protection had been in force. Samori Ture, had established an empire between 1880 and 1890, extending over large parts of present-day (2021) Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Ivory Coast. The French responded with military pressure. Ture was captured in 1898.

In 1900, France imposed a head tax which provoked several revolts. The public works programs undertaken by the Ivorian colonial government and the exploitation of natural resources required massive commitments of labor. The French imposed a system of forced labor under which every male adult Ivorian was required to work for ten days each year without compensation as part of his obligation to the state. The system was the most hated aspect of French colonial rule and subject of massive misuse. The population of Ivory Coast was insufficient to meet the labor demand, and they recruited large numbers of workers from Upper Volta (Burkina Faso, 2021) to work.

From 1904 to 1958, Ivory Coast was part of the Federation of French West Africa. It was a colony and an overseas territory under the Third Republic. Until the period following WWII, governmental affairs in French West Africa were administered from Paris. All Africans in Ivory Coast were officially French “subjects” without rights to representation in Africa or France. The French officially abolished “slavery” in most of French West Africa in 1905.

Gabriel Angoulvant became governor of Ivory Coast. He embarked on a campaign, sending military expeditions into the hinterland to oppress resistance. Local rulers were compelled to obey existing antislavery laws, supply porters and food the French troops. They also had to ensure the protection of French trade and personnel. In return, the French agreed to leave local customs intact and promised not to intervene in the selection of rulers. The French often disregarded their agreement.

French colonial policy incorporated concepts of assimilation and association. In practice the assimilation policy meant extension of the French language, institutions, laws, and customs. The policy of association affirmed the superiority of the French in the colonies. The colonizer and the colonized had different institutions and systems of laws to follow. The Africans in Ivory Coast could preserve their own customs if they were compatible with French interests. After 1930, a small number of Westernized Ivorians were granted the right to apply for French citizenship. Ivorians had no political rights. They were drafted to work in mines, on plantations, as porters, and on public projects as part of their tax responsibility. They were expected to serve in the army.

During WWII, general Charles De Gaulle assumed control of all French West Africa in 1943. France’s gratitude for African loyalty during the war led to far-reaching governmental reforms in 1946. All African “subjects” were granted French citizenship. Various forms of forced labor were abolished. They had the right to politically organize. Overseas Reform Act of 1956 was a turning point in the relations with France. A few powers transferred from Paris to elected territorial governments in French West Africa.

Until 1958, governors appointed in Parisa administered the colony of Ivory Coast. Little room was left for Ivorian participants in policy making. The French adopted divide-and-rule policies to the educated elite. At first, the small but influential elite was sufficiently satisfied with the status quo to refrain to any anti-French sentiment. Through the postwar reforms, Ivorian leaders realized that even assimilation implied the superiority of the French over the Ivorians, and that discrimination and inequality would only end with independence.


Dan Conical Crest Mask

Conical Crest Mask. Found: Ivory Coast (JN0279)

Dan People

± 1950

The Dan, also known as the Yacouba, live in the west of Ivory Coast and in Liberia, with a wooded region in the south and the savannah in the north. Permitted by secret societies in the early 20th century, the Dan lived in autonomous villages ruled by a chief who was chosen for his wealth and social standing.

In the 21st century, Leopard society, a peacemaking society, plays an important role in the life of the Dan People. The basic unit of the Dan culture is family. It consists of a husband with one or more wives and their children. Groups of people descended from common ancestors in the paternal line, live in neighborhoods of the city. Cities that converge under a central government are called clans.

The Dan People are known for their remarkable wood sculptures, including an enormous variety of masks, each with unique shapes and purposes. The masks are the practical art form of this culture. The Dan are mainly farmers who cut forest land for a living. The men do most of the agricultural work, but women also help with harvesting and weeding. They live in small single houses made of mud and thatch. Each woman of a man has her own cabin where she lives with her children until they are old enough to move.

Their beliefs are complex. They believe in the supreme god Zlan, who created everything. No one can reach or see him. That is why they worship Zu, a single spiritual force. Most believe in reincarnation, which allows Zu to transfer someone after death into an animal or into another person. With the help of dreams, people can communicate with Zu.