Paleogene Period
(66 million yrs. BC to 23,03 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Paleogene Period (= Ancient Born) is the first part of the Cenozoic Era. It spreads over 43 million years. During this time mammals evolved from relatively small, simple forms into a large group of diverse animals. This period consists of three Epochs: the Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene.
Maybe it's good to note here that this Period and Neogene previously covered the Tertiary Period, but is not logner considered asl a formal stratigraphic term. In literature "Tertiary" can still be found.
One of the most important periods during the Paleogene was the global change during the Cenezoic Era. That change upset the oceanic and atmospheric circulation that led to the extinction of numerous deep-sea foraminifera and on land the expansion of mammals.
Paleocene Epoch
(66 million yrs. BC to 56 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Paleocene Epoch is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period, immediately after the extinction of the dinosaurs. The Paelocene has the status of an epoch or series in time scale. It follows the Late Cretaceous Epoch and is followed by the Eocene Epoch. The term comes from the Ancient Greek 'palaiois' (= 'old') and 'kainos' (= 'recent'). The climate on Eath was warmer than today (2020). But it was cooler and drier than before. The seal level was lower than the Cretaceous Period. Europe and North America were connected, as were Asia and North America at some moments. South America was an island on its own, widely seperated from North America. The former supercontinent Gondwana (Africa, South America, Antartica and Australia) was pulling away from each other.
The Rocky Mountains were being uplifted, the Indian Plate begun its collision with Asia. the thermohaline circulation in the oceans was probably different than today (2020). The water density was mainly controlled by the saltinity ranther than temperature.
The epoch was marked by the K-PG extinction, brought by an asteroid impact. It killed off 75% of living species, most famously the non-avian dinosaurs. The end of the Paleocene Epoch was marked by the Paelocene-Ecocene thermal maximum, a major climatic event wherein about 2.500 - 4.500 gigatons of carbon were released into the atmosphere and ocean systems, causing a spike in global temperatures and ocean acidification.
The K-Pg event caused a floral and faunal turnover of spieces. Previously abundant species were being replaced by the uncommon ones. The earth had a greenhouse climate, without permanent ice sheets at the poles. Many modern plants species appeared during the Paleocene Epoch, such as cacti and palm trees. The relatively warm temperatures worldwide gave rise to thick forests around the globe. Mammals became more diverse, and many evolved larger body size, while adopting ecological roles similar to the now-extinct dinosaurs. These early mammals retained very primitive teeth and skeletons. Thought greater in size, most remained rather small. The forests grew quite dense in the general absence of large herbivores. All are extinxt in 2020 AD, and only distantly related to living species.
The earliest hoofed ungulates, closely-related to the ancestors of perissodactyls, appeared during the Paleocene. Other examples from that epoch include the rodent-like multituberculates and giant flightless predatory birds, like Gastornis. Ray-finned fish rose to dominate in the seas, open ocean and reef ecosystems.
Danian Age
(66 million yrs. BC to 61,6 million yrs. BC)
Selandian Age
(61,6 million yrs. BC to 59,2 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Selandian Age is a time section in the Geological Time Scale in the Paleocene. It comes after the Danian and before the Thanetian Age. It is named after the Danish island of Zealand.
The base of the Selandian is laid within the magnetostratigraphic chronozone C27r, just above a radiation within the calcareous nannoplankton genus 'Fasciculithus' and the first appearance of the nannoplankton species 'Neochiastozygus perfectus'.
A sharp depositional change in the North Sea Basin is a shift to siliciclastic deposition due to the uplift and erosion in the Scotland-Shetland area, after nearly 40 million years of calcium carbonate deposition. This change occured at the same time as the onset of a foreland basin formation in Spitsbergen, due to compression between Greenland and Svalbard. This suggests a common tectonic cause that altered the relative motions of the Greenland Plate and the Eurasian Plate. That marked a change in seafloor spreading direction in the Labrador Sea around this time.
Ray - Myliobatis Species
± 60 million yrs. BC
Rays and sharks are cartilaginous fish. Ray teeth usually turn black as a fossil, recognizable by the rectangular shape with ridges.
Shark - (Unidentified Species)
± 60 million yrs. BC
The first sharks, all belonging to the cartilaginous fishes, appeared about 400 million years BC. The dinosaurs arose ± 200 million years later. There were no reptiles, birds, or mammals then. The hard parts, such as a tooth or a vertebra, get buried in the soil and sometimes leave an imprint in a stone. The oldest shark groups are extinct, but descendants of some groups, from 200 million years BC, are still alive, e.g., bullhead sharks, cat sharks and cow sharks. There are ± 400 species, including only 4 to 5 dangerous species.
Ray - (Unidentified Species)
± 60 million yrs. BC
Rays are a class of cartilaginous fish discovered in 1888. More than 450 diverse species have been described and are found in almost every sea and ocean. There are small and large rays that can grow up to 4 meters. Most species live at the bottom of the sea, often on the coast, sometimes to a depth of 3000 meters. Few species like the manta rays live in the open sea. A few other species live in freshwater.
The body is flattened rhomboid, or disc shaped. The tail does not belong to that shape. Cartilaginous fish do not have a skeleton with bones, but more of an elastic composition. They have 5 gill slits on the ventral side with usually two dorsal fins on the tail. Not all rays have a caudal fin. Rays move with the help of 2 large pectoral fins or swim with their hind bodies, like sharks.
The eyes are located on the top of the head. In the era after the dinosaurs, the era of mammals began. Rays swam in the creek, the banks were covered with mangrove-like trees, oysters lived on the roots. The sea was filled with life. They don't have a swim bladder. Behind the eyes is a hole through which water is drawn in for breathing.
Rays are thought to have existed for 150 million years BC. The rays, like all cartilaginous fish, are predators or predatory fish. Rays are adapted to living at the bottom of the sea. They bury themselves in the sand to surprise their prey. That is why they are camouflaged in nature.
Tooth 65-80 mm. Found: Oued Zem, Morocco (JN0173)
Vertebra. Found: Oued Zem, Morocco (JN0179)
Shark - Otodus Obliquus
± 60 million yrs. BC
Otodus Obliquus is an extinct genus of mackerel shark that lived from the Paleocene to the Miocene Epoch. The name comes from ancient Greek ‘oûs’ (= ear) and ‘odus’ (= tooth), “ear-shaped tooth”.
It is believed that the species originates from a lineage of sharks belonging to the genus ‘Cretalamna’. Otodus evolved into the genus ‘Carcharocles’, given substantial fossil evidence in the form of transitional teeth. These fossils suggest a worldwide evolutionary event and support that theory.
Otodus likely preyed upon large bony fish, other sharks, and from the Eocene until their extinction during the Miocene, marine mammals. The teeth of this shark are large with triangular crown, smooth cutting edges, and visible cusps on the roots.
The shark was ± 9,1 m long. Despite its size, it was not an apex predator. He had to share the oceans with other predators, such as Basilosaurus, which was 18 m.
Tooth 40-55 mm. Found: Khouribga, Morocco (JN0177)
Shark - Palaeocarcharodon Orientalis
± 60 million yrs. BC
Palaeocarcharodon is also known as the pygmy white shark. This shark was the earliest white shark, and one of the earliest Lamnid sharks with serrated teeth. It is a genus of shark that lived during the Paleocene. Currently (2021), it contains a sole species, Palaeocarcharodon orientalis.
The teeth are triangular, labio-lingually compressed, with quite irregular serrations and serrate lateral cusplets. These teeth can reach a size between 3 to 6 cm.
In addition to rarity and importance, the are very pleasing and very popular among fossil collectors.
Fish - Enchodus
± 60 million yrs. BC
The Enchodus is often referred to as "Sabre-toothed herring", but it looks more like a salmon. It owes its name to the large fangs in the mouth that are popular with collectors. They are perfect for biting small smooth prey, as well as possible cephalopods, like squid and are situated in a mouth that has a wide gape.
These features reveal together that while the teeth were great for prey capture, they could not pull of smaller chunks of flesh. Once the prey has been speared by the teeth, the Enchodus probably used a series of rapid jaw opening and closing movements instead to work its body over the prey. The downwards slant of the mouth would have facilitated this method of feeding, as it would allow the lower jaw to open further and wider.
Such prey were probaby approached from behind and seized by the tail, before being swallowed by a series of successive bites. The downwards slanting jaws might also indicate that the fish approached its prey from a slight angle beneath them, like in other fish with similar jaws, that exhibit this behaviour.
The Enchodus appears to have held an intermediate placement in the oceanic food chain. While it was a predator of other oceanic animals, the fish itself was eaten by larger predators, like marine reptiles and sharks.
The Enchodus was an important link in the marine ecosystem. They controlled the smaller predators and plankton eaters, so it did not deplete the basic food resources in the oceans. They make up much of the biomass in the oceans that support larger and more diverse animal species that cannot eat the smaller ones.
Fish (Unidentified Species)
± 60 million yrs. BC
Of all the bone material, fossils or not, found along beaches, fish vertebrae are by far the best to be found. Firstly because they are quite numerous and secondly, because you're not dependant on sand nourishments. The sea is "full" of fish. Where there is fish, there is bone. You have a change to find fish bones along the coast.
Determination is way too difficult. Most vertebrae found are at first sight, very similar. Especially when the vertebrae have been stripped of all excellent features by the best of time.
The skeleton of a fish is relativily light and consists of a vertebral column, with the bones, the fin rays and fin carriers, the bones of the pelvic and lumbar girdles, skull, jawbones, gill arches and gill covers. The bones in the front part of the body are paired and partially envelop the abdominal cavity. The jaws of bony fish are protruding, making it easy for those fish to suck in food.
Their vertabbrae are more fragile because less is expected of a skeleton underwater. The spine also has different types of vertebrae.
Gastropod - Land Snail - Cepacea
± 60 million yrs. BC
Cepaea is a genus of medium-sized air-breathing land snails. The shells are often brightly colored and patterned with stripes. There are two species from this genus that are common and widespread. The Cepaea nemoralis and the Cepacea hortensis, who have been model species for early studies of genetics and natural selection. They mostly occur in Europe, although introduced populations occur elsewhere in the world.
Thanks to the hard shells of snails, such fossils can be well preserved. They are found in all kinds of deposits, on the condition that the sediment (= deposits by wind, water and / or ice) has not been descaled.
Coral - Dendrophyllia Candelabrum
± 60 million yrs. BC
The Dendrophyllia candelabrum is a type of fossil coral that looks very strange. They are very distinctive corals that can form large clusters and a tangle of branches. In other words, the growth pattern consists of loose, tubular shapes. They are found in Faxe, Denmark, among others.
The twigs consist of the mineral aragite and can turn bright white to dirty yellow. They occur in deeper, colder water areas. As a fossil, corals are most often found in hard corals because they build an external limestone skeleton that can fossilize more easily.
Thanetian Age
(59,2 million yrs. BC to 56 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Thanetian Age is the latest age of the Paleocene Epoch. The age is preceded by the Selandian Age and followed by the Ypresian Age of the Eocene Epoch. Sometimes, the Thanetian is referred to as the Late Paleocene.
The name comes from the Thanet Formation, the oldest Cenozoic deposit of the London Basin. The base is laid at the base of the magnetic chronozone C26n. Fossils of the unicellular planktonic marine coccolithophore ‘Areoligeria gippingensis’ first appeared at the base of the Thanetian.
The period was characterized by temperatures warmer than those of the present (2022). Europe enjoyed a tropical climate. Leaves, flowers, and seeds are preserved in freshwater limestone fossils. The first representatives of Proboscidea appeared during the Thanetian. It includes the elephants and their relatives.
Stromatolite - Chlorellopsis Coloniata
± 59,2 million yrs. BC to ± 56 million yrs. BC
The Chlorellopsis coloniata is algal from the Paleocene. Of all photosynthetic organisms is algae the least complex. The body of algae lacks characteristics for fossilization. The only algae to become fossilized after having been covered are those that give off silica or carbonate into their cell walls. Very few related algae specimens are found in fossil records.
Our Chlorellopsis coloniata formed most of the fresh water algal reefs of the Flagstaff Formation of Utah. The most typical forms were large, rounded heads. The reefs did take a variety of forms. When studied under a microscope, the alga shows a spherical cell of minute interlocking grains of calcite. Where the calcite has entered though a rupture in the wall of the cell, the cellular structure has been preserved.
Eocene Epoch
(56 million yrs. BC to 33,9 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Eocene Epoch is the second of three epochs in the Paleogene Period. It is in that span of time that the oldest known fossils of the modern orders of mammals appear. All were small and weighed under 10 kg.
The name comes from the Ancient Greek 'New Dawn'. It refers to the dawn of modern fauna that apperared during this Epoch. The start of the Eocene is marked by a brief period in which the concentration of a carbon isotope (Carbon-13) in the atmoshere was remarkable low. The end of the Eocene is set by a major extinction event (La Grande Coupure), who may be related to the impact of one or plurial large bolides in Siberia.
The Eocene is divided in four Ages; Ypresian, Lutetian, Bartonian and Priabonian Age.
Ypresian Age
(56 million yrs. BC to 47,8 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Ypresian is the first subdivision of the Eocene Epoch. It comes after the Thanetian and is succeeded by the Lutetian Age. The age was named after the Belgian town of Ypres (= Ieper in Dutch). However the current floor has little to do with the original definition. The type location was originally located near Ypres, nowadays the golden spike is in the Dababiya profile near the Egyptian city of Luxor.
The age beings during the throes of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, a sudden and short term warming of the climate. In addition to this short extremely warm period, the climate was also very warm during the rest of the time slice, and remained so in the Lutetian.
The base of the Ypresian is defined by the strong negative anomaly δ13C (pronounced ‘delta c thirteen’) values at the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. It is a measurement used in archaeology for the reconstruction of past diets, particularly to see if marine foods or certain types of plants were consumed.
Petrified Wood
± 55 million yrs. BC
Petrification is the process of organic matter that is replaced by minerals over time, while preserving the cell structure.
Large. Found: Kemmener, Wyoming, US (JN0117-1)
Small. Found: Kemmener, Wyoming, US (JN0117-2)
Fish - Diplomystus Dentatus
± 55 million yrs. BC
Diplomystus dentatus is an extinct genus of freshwater fish. It is an ancestor of the current extant herring, alewives, and sardines. It was ± 21 cm tall with a high body with thin ovoid scales.
They had a homo-strong tail (= externally exactly symmetrical, but internally the end of the spine is bent upwards). They also had a single dorsal and anal fin. The ventral fin was located directly below of the dorsal fin.
The fish's mouth had slid upward, indicating that it was looking for food at the surface of the water. This species lived in lakes and fed on other small fish.
The Diplomystus dentatus is one of the most common fish fossils in the American lakes. Sometimes they are found with another fish in their belly, or while swallowing another fish.
Bird - Odontopteryx
± 56 million yrs. BC to ± 33,9 million yrs. BC ( Probably ± 50 million yrs. BC)
The Odontopteryx is an extinct genus of birds. This seabird lived in the Eocene and fed on fish, which they snatched from the sea in flight over the surface of the water.
It was ± 90 cm tall with a skull of 15 cm long. The cutting face of his jaws had distinct forward, tooth-like protrusions on the cutting face. The skull was about the same shape and size as the skull of the current gannet.
The larger species had a wingspan of ± 5 m. The smallest still had the wingspan of the modern albatross and pelican. These birds were probably related to pelicans, storks, and water birds.
Nothing else is known about these animals yet (2021). The fossils are rare, so much must be assumed, and little can be shown or proven.
Fly (Unidentified)
± 50 million yrs. BC
Researchers have managed to solve a mystery. A fossilized prehistoric fly of ± 160 million years BC turns out to have a roller tongue. Flowering plants did not exist at that time. Then why was this fly equipped with that organ?
A roller tongue is a rollable, tubular organ with which nectar or other liquid food can be sucked up. However, flowers did not exist at all then. No one believed that a fly had developed a roller tongue so early. Skeptics stated that it must be a piece of plant reminiscent of a roller tongue.
They examined the fly using modern, microscopic techniques. The findings show that the fly is equipped with a roller tongue, identical to the roller tongue of some other modern flies. The organ of the fly studied, was found to be almost twice as long as its body of 12 mm. There was more clarity about that body, yet the question remains. Why did the prehistoric fly have a roller tongue, when flowering plants did not emerge until much later?
This fly flew over the world, where not a single flower has bloomed yet. They only came in the Cretaceous period (= ± 145 - 66 million years BC) only as small, inconspicuous specimens. The answer eventually came of an extinct plant collected from the same layers as the fly. It was a seed plant that falls under the gymnosperms (= flowerless plants). Many had showy, floral reproductive organs. It could be that this plant secreted sugary droplets. The depth of the cones of the plant correspond to the length of the roller tongue of that fly. The tiny fly developed an extremely long roller tongue to access the sugary droplets hidden deep within the old seed plant.
The researchers believe the insects pollinate these plants in exchange for a sweet reward. The basis for pollination between plant and insect was therefore probably laid long ago, even before the first flower decorated the Earth.
Snake - Palaeophis Maghrebianus
± 50 million yrs. BC
Palaeophis maghrebianus (= “old snake”) is an extinct sea snake belonging to the extinct snake family Palaeophiidae. This subfamily of snakes is relatively little known. They are said to be closely related to the boas.
The representation is mainly by inarticulate vertebrae and ribs. About 13 species have been described. The species within the Palaeophis lived from the Cretaceous to the Eocene, 70,6 to 33,9 million years BC. Remains have been found in England, France, Denmark, Morocco, Mali, and the United States.
Fossils of Palaeophis maghrebianus in the phosphates of Morocco allow us to make a more detailed diagnosis of this species. Material reveals that this species could reach gigantic dimensions. Species varied widely in size. Palaeophis casei is the smallest with a length of 1,3 meters. The Palaeophis colossaeus is the largest and could reach a length of 9 m. The species Palaeophis maghrebianus from the early Eocene of Morocco is a large species, for which extensive fragments of the vertebral column have been recovered. The animal was about 6 to 9 meters long.
The Palaeophis were specialized aquatic animals found in marine layers. Studies of the vertebrae indicate that these animals have developed in the direction of endothermy (= body temperature caused by the internal body functions). Endotherms are better known as "warm-blooded". Modern snakes have no such blood flow, which means that current snakes have a slower metabolism and growth rate than the Palaeophis. The extinct snakes lived as a shallow sea dweller in a mangrove environment. Mangroves are tree or shrub species that occur in tropical coastal areas. The mangroves often have a prominent root system protruding above the ground or in the water.
Lutetian Age
(47,8 million yrs. BC to 41,2 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Lutetian Age is the second of four stage of the Eocene Epoch in the Paleogene Period. The name is derived from Lutetia, the ancient Latin name for Paris, France. It comes after the Ypresian and before the Bartonian Age. The original type location is also located near this city, as an official name had not been established for this period at the end of 2007.
The lower boundary or start of this age coincides with the base of the zone of foraminiferan ‘Hantkenina nuttalli’. Also at the base of the Lutetian is the first appearance of nanofossil ‘Blackites inflatus’.
Rays are a class of cartilaginous fish discovered in 1888. More than 450 different species have been described and are found in almost every sea and ocean. There are small and large rays that can grow up to 4 meters.
Matrix Free. Found: Vincenza, Italy (JN0284)
Crab - Harpactoxanthopsis Quadrilobata
± 47,8 million yrs. BC to ± 41,2 million yrs. BC
Harpactoxanthopsis quadrilobata is a well-known brachyuora crab species reported across Europe in the Eocene era. In Slovakia they are rather limited. One copy was donated to the Natural History Museum.
Harpactoxanthopsis quadrilobata is a heterochelic species. This means that it is characterized by the bilateral (= two-sided) asymmetry due to morphologically (= shape) unequal claw. This phenomenon is not rare in decapod crustaceans. It can be the result of several factors i.e., feeding techniques or mating behavior. Interestingly, the ratio of breakers to cutters varies in selected populations of decapods studied. The distribution of right and left handedness is the same in lobsters, while in crabbing it is very uneven. We can note that under certain circumstances the dexterity can change. An extensive quantitative study is needed to further evaluate this phenomenon. If such research is attempted in the future, care should be taken to use figures from works published before the 20th century as a reference.
The first crabs are known from the Jura. Because crabs have a hard shell, they fossilize relatively easily compared to other animals. Crabs have clearly split off from other crustaceans when we look at their characteristic build. In addition to these primary differences, many crabs have also specialized secondarily. It is not clear when the crabs split off.
Egg. Found: Bouxwiller, France (JN0856)
Snake - Ophidienovum Species (Probably Buxowillanum)
± 47,8 million yrs. BC to ± 40 million yrs. BC
Bouxwiller is a small town in Alsace, France. Numerous fossil discoveries have been found there, providing the region with a rich geological history. A notable find is the fossil of an Ophidienovum snake egg. It dates from about 50 million years ago. Our copy is slightly younger. That snake egg provides valuable insights into the evolutionary history of snakes and their reproductive strategies. It is such fossils that help scientists understand ancient ecosystems and the diversity of life. In this case it concerns the Eocene.
Snake eggs are elongated, covered with a leathery or calcified shell. They are laid by female snakes and provide a protective environment for the developing embryos. The discovery of snake egg fossils allows researchers to study the morphology (= build and shape) and structure of these ancient eggs. It provides clues about the reproductive biology of snakes in the past. Ours is probably the Ophidienovum buxowillanum. Little is known about this snake species.
Egg fossils are fossilized remains of eggs. These fossils are considered a type of trace fossil as evidence of an animal's physiological processes. Under rare circumstances, a fossil egg can preserve the remains of the once-developing embryo. It therefore contains body fossils. A wide variety of different animal groups laid eggs that are now preserved in the fossil record. Some examples of this are invertebrates such as ammonoids, but also vertebrates such as fish, amphibians, and reptiles. The many dinosaur eggs belong to this last group. Often without knowing which living animal laid the egg, scientists classify eggs using a parallel taxonomy system separate from the usual Linnaean system. This is called veterovata.
The fossil record of reptiles dates back at least to the early Permian. The earliest reptile eggs had a soft shell with little preservation potential. Therefore, reptile eggs can move beyond their fossil record. Many ancient reptile groups are known from egg fossils, including dinosaurs, crocodiles, and turtles.
Found: Montagne du Grand'ru, Compiegne, France (JN0635)
Foraminifera - Nummulites
± 47 million yrs. BC
Nummulites is a genus of fossil foraminifera belonging to the Nummulitidae. These organisms have a calcareous shell wrapped in a flat spiral. It is divided into several chambers by transverse septa. Nummulites are single-celled giants. The largest specimens can reach a diameter of more than 10-12 cm.
They are often found in Paleogene limestone, particularly in the Mediterranean region. The great Egyptian pyramids were built with that material.
Rays (Unidentified)
± 45 million yrs. BC
Balegem is a district of Oosterzele in the province of East Flanders. It already existed in the 12th century, but by then the rays had already disappeared. The fossil teeth come from rays that lived in the southern North Sea. Most come from Middle Eocene deposits.
Rays are a class of cartilaginous fish discovered in 1888. More than 450 different species have been described and are found in almost every sea and ocean. There are small and large rays that can grow up to 4 meters.
Most rays have developed strong and rounded teeth to break open the shells of species at the bottom of the sea. Most species detect their prey by smell. Their food consists of mollusks, crustaceans, worms, echinoderms and benthic fish. Some also eat plankton.
They are related to the shark because they also have a cartilage body. Like the shark, they have an internal fertilization.
The climate in Belgium was tropical to subtropical at the time. Originally these teeth were white, but by sitting in an oxygen-covered soil for years, they have turned black or gray.
Due to their high hardness, they easily resist erosion. The teeth often remain and are then found. They often form the base of gravel. A concentration of ray teeth can be observed at the basis of almost every marine deposit in Belgium.
Ray - Raja
± 45 million yrs. BC
Oosterzele is a municipality in the province of East Flanders. Different types of ray teeth were found. Teeth from Aetobatus and Myliobatis. The teeth are changed throughout life. The Raja is a genus of rays, formerly a "wastebin genus", as they temporarily placed many historical species in them, and then moved them. Most have spiny or thorn-like structures on the top surface.
The varieties range from about 40 to 140 cm in length. Ray teeth, like shark teeth, usually turn black as they fossilize. They can be recognized by the rectangular shape with ridges.
Most species live on the bottom of the sea, often on the coast, sometimes to a depth of 3000 meters. Few species like the manta ray live in the open sea. Few species live in freshwater.
The body is flattened diamond or disk-shaped. The tail does not belong to that shape.
Cartilaginous fish do not have a skeleton with bones, but rather an elastic composition. They have 5 gill slits on the ventral side with usually two dorsal fins on the tail. Not all rays have a caudal fin. Rays move with the help of 2 large pectoral fins or swim with their rear body, like sharks. The eyes are located at the top of the head.
In the post-dinosaur era, the era of mammals began. Rays swam in the creek, its banks were covered with mangrove-like trees, oysters lived on the roots. The sea was filled with life.
They don't have a swim bladder. There is a hole behind the eyes through which water is sucked in for breathing and controlling their buoyancy.
Younger rays may have roots that show little or no nutritional groove. Larger rays show fully developed grooves. Crowns can remain similar, the roots differ in location and depending on the species, the roots can be wider or narrower than the crown, symmetrical or asymmetrical, parallel or spread, have a well-formed feeding groove or none at all. Some rays are filter feeders, they collect their food by filtering it out of the water. Water enters through the mouth and remains in the gills.
Tooth. Found: Togo (JN0169)
Shark - Galeocerdo
± 45 million yrs. BC
Galeocerdo is a genus of requiem sharks that lived since the Paleocene Epoch. It is the ancestor of the modern tiger shark. These sharks were formerly diverse.
This shark mainly swims around in coastal waters, and therefor dangerous to humans. Fossils of these fish were found all over the world.
The teeth of this 500 cm long shark consist of crowns with finely sawn main spikes. The cutting surface is coarser. At the base is a shallow nutrient channel and multiple vascular openings.
Small Teeth. Found: Oosterzele, Belgium (JN0176)
Shark (Various Species)
± 45 million yrs. BC
A sea covered this area millions of years BC (In the Middle Eocene, Lutetian) There was an accumulation of (calcareous) remains of organisms living in this sea. This means that limestone consists mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and fossils are regularly found in it (shells, nautiluses, shark, and ray teeth, etc.).
Gastropod (Unidentified)
± 45 million yrs. BC
This gastropod comes from Dakhla, a region in Morocco. What is special here is that the fossil did not form a stone but became agate. It is not really known how agate forms. Probably a high pressure in a closed space with a very dense gelatinous silicate (= salts of silica).
The geological study of fossil snails and mollusks in general provides a picture of the changes in the environment in the past.
Foraminifera - Assilina Exponens
± 45 million yrs. BC
Assilina exponens is a foraminifera in the family Nummulitidae. This species is extinct. Dead specimens of Assilina exponens form calcareous sludge. The genus belongs to the benthic foraminifera phylum (= tribe). Characteristics are the intricate spiral plates of the successive turns of the whorl of the shell. The degree of opening of the wreath is low, which gives it a relatively regular and clean appearance.
These species live on the seabed. Their presence may indicate a shallow depositional environment. Benthic foraminifera often need sunlight and therefore live in the photic zone (= upper layer of a lake or ocean where enough sunlight penetrates for photosynthesis.
Foraminifera - Nummulites Millecaput
± 45 million yrs. BC
Nummulites millecaput is an extinct common large foraminifera species in the marine sediments of the Eocene. It is therefore a contemporary witness of the era. Some specimens of this species were collected near Bad Adelholzen.
About 50 million years BC, this species lived in the Eocene, during the warmest climatic period since before the demise of the dinosaurs. They grew up to 160 mm. After this peak, the nummulite decreased in size and diversity. Their living relatives are rarely larger than 2 mm or live longer than a year or two.
Bartonian Age
(41,2 million yrs. BC to 37,8 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Bartonian Age is derived from the coastal village Barton-on-Sea, in southern England.
Every Age is distinguished by the first appearance and disappearance of the calcerous nanoplankton species 'Reticulofenestra reticulata', that formed the base of this Age.
Amber
± 40 million yrs. BC
Amber is fossil resin from coniferous trees. Amber is very light, usually yellowish in color and can be transparent as well as completely or partially opaque.
Amber With Insect
± 40 million yrs. BC
Amber is a fossil resin from coniferous trees. The resin dripped from the trees millions of years ago and then petrified.
The word amber comes from Arabic “anbar”. The classic name is connected to Ancient Greek, meaning 'beaming sun', the substance can burn.
Sometimes insects or plant parts are caught in the resin, which are therefore perfectly preserved, as in this specimen with a small (fruit) fly. That's because the resin was still liquid when it covered an insect. With age, the insect's colors disappear and it turns black.
Amber is very light. If you lightly tap it against your teeth, it will sound like plastic. It is usually yellowish in color and can be transparent as well as partially or completely opaque.
Most amber comes from the Baltic Sea region. Kaliningrad, Russia, accounts for 90% of world production. It also regularly washes up on beaches in the Netherlands, Germany and the Baltic Sea region. A lot of amber also comes from the Dominican Republic.
Amber can be confused with the more younger subfossil or recent copal.
Whale Ancestor - Pappocetus Lugardi
± 40 million yrs. BC
Pappocetus Lugardi is an extinct protocetid cetacean. It is also the ancestor of Basilosaurus, a rare early-stage specimen of the modern whale.
The species differs from all other known cetacean genera by the stepped notch on the ventral (= belly side) margin of the lower jaw. They differ from Indocetus and Rodhocetus because of the deciduous double root, and from Protocetus and Babiacetus because of the presence of additional cuspules (= notches in the tooth). The shape of the molars is comparable to that of Georgiacetus and the approximate body size to that of the Eocetus.
The fossil record of these vertebrates is very well depicted. The cetacean (= protocetides) had front and rear legs that could support the body on land. They were most likely amphibious which allowed them to survive on land as well as in the sea.
Bird - Gastornis (AKA Diatryma)
± 40 million yrs. BC
The prehistoric bird Gastornis used to be called Diatryma, which means “Through a hole” in Greek. The American paleontologist Edward Cope coined the name Diatryma in 1876. He was unaware that fossil hunter, Gaston Plante, had given its name to the genus in 1855, based on bones found near Paris, France. In the 1980s the name gradually changed back to Gastornis.
Gastornis was 1,8 m tall but not the largest prehistoric bird ever lived. That is the Aepyornis (= Elephant Bird). The Gastornis is one of the most dangerous animals of its time. It had a tyrannosaurus-like profile. The animal appeared about 10 million years after dinosaurs became extinct. There is evidence that Gastornis was an herbivore rather than a carnivore. Early illustrations showed him chewing on Hyracotherium (a small prehistoric horse). Chemical analysis of his bones, points to a plant-based diet. The huge cranium would have been ideal for cracking tough vegetation, not meat. Gastornis lacked the characteristic hooked beak for later carnivorous birds. The short stocky legs would also hinder the hunt for prey through the rugged undergrowth.
The eggs were elongated rather than round or ovoid, and nearly 25 cm in length and 10 cm in diameter. Given the fossils found, Gastornis clearly had an unusually widespread distribution, showing that it was well adapted to its place and time.
Sea Urchin - Coelopleurus Coronalis
± 40 million yrs. BC
They are deep sea urchins with very long spines and surprisingly vibrant colors. These sea urchins are called common sea urchins, that is, they are round, with the mouth in the middle of the bottom ("oral face") and the anus on the other side (the so-called face." Aboral "), in the center of the "apical device" at the top of the scale ("test").
This genus seems to have appeared in the Eocene and to spread to most of the world's oceans. Because these sea urchins are abyssal (= life at 4000 - 6000 meters deep), their biology is still little known. They are apparently predators of the sessile fauna (octocoral corals, bryozoans, etc.).
The Coelopleurus is distinguished from other sea urchins by its rare sexual dimorphism. Males are equipped with a seminal papilla (= bulge) that hangs over the gonopore (= in the female the opening of the common fallopian tube, in the male it is the opening of the ejaculatory duct). During reproduction, the sperm comes out.
Sea Urchin - Proescutella Marginalis
± 40 million yrs. BC
Dimpled from the edge and very similar to Peronella canteranensis. Only through the microscope can the different position of the madrepores (= star corals opposite of the ambulacral fields) be seen.
Sea Urchin - Echinolampas Ovalis
± 40 million yrs. BC
The aboral surface has radiating rows of holes where the tube feet extended. These soft structures at the end of the water vascular system were used for locomotion, bringing food to the mouth, and breathing. There are four holes in the middle. These are genital pores that serve to release gametes (= sexual reproductive cell) into the water during reproduction.
Sea Urchin - Echinolampas Burdigalensis
± 40 million yrs. BC
Echinolampas is a very popular fossil among collectors. They are quite common in some locations. This indicates a way of life in groups. It is noteworthy that a particular species is known in a defined area and not found elsewhere. The Echinolampas burdigalensis is an example of this. It was a medium-sized species. They grew up to 6 cm in size and up to 2,6 cm in height. They had very long petals (= petals) and were almost round.
Coral - Astrocoenia Ramosa
± 40 million yrs. BC
Astrocoenia are found in crevices, under overhangs or woven and steep reef slopes. It was a colonial coral, which may appear branched, massive, or crusted. The diameter of the calyx varies between 1 and 5 mm. The outer wall is formed by the union of the septa (= partitions) that reach the axis. There they meet the laminar column which is well developed.
Amber
± 40 million yrs. BC
Sometimes amber washes up on the beach. Poland and Denmark are examples of this. Also, in the Netherlands it is often found on the beaches of the Wadden Islands.
It is not sufficient for resin to harden to qualify as amber. The molecules must polymerize. That process takes at least 100.000 years. Ambers are usually millions of years old. As the amber matures with age, more polymerization takes place. After polymerization (= the formation of a chain of always the same, repeating molecules) the resin is no longer sticky and thus forms a new substance.
Much of the material marketed as “amber”, especially from Madagascar and Colombia, is much too young and is just dried tree resin.
Our specimen was brought in as a boulder by rivers in the northeast of the Netherlands. In washed-out lignite layers in the subsoil, they can vary from a few centimeters to a meter. Rounded lignite and other wood residues are mainly deposited by the Eridanos (= former river, which flowed through what is the Baltic Sea in 2022) and surface in sand dredges and sand quarries.
Amber
± 40 million yrs. BC
The main source of amber is the Baltic Sea region. The Samland peninsula in the Russian area of Kaliningrad (= the former East Prussia) accounts for 90% of world production. In the region of Saint Petersburg, you can also find amber on the beach or in the soil.
Oblast (= administrative unit) Kaliningrad is a Russian enclave on the Baltic Sea. An enclave is not geographically linked to the motherland, in this case Russia. The area is surrounded by Lithuania and Poland. The capital is Kaliningrad.
Such amber can be found on the western beaches. Winter is the best season after a storm. Then it washes up on the beach because amber floats on salt water. One does not wait for a storm to throw the amber on the shore. Amber is also fished with nets. Submarine layers contain amber from the Eocene of the Paleogene period. However, 50% of the world's production comes from the quarries in the area (e.g., Yantarny mine). Amber is relatively cheap there.
During the era of the Teutonic Knights, amber was already collected there. They managed to establish a monopoly on the amber trade which was handed over to the Prussian state.
Found: Girona, Spain (JN0636)
Foraminifera - Nummulites
± 40 million yrs. BC
Nummulus is Latin for "coin". Nummulites are disc-shaped unicellular foraminifera belonging to the order Rotaliina. They are so-called “large forams”, foraminifera that can grow to several centimeters in size. Exceptions were more than 10 cm. Today (2022) representatives of the family still exist. They are bottom dwellers of tropical and subtropical shallow seas.
All living species live in symbiosis with different microalgae. The extinct species probably did this too. The oldest fossils of nummulite appear in the Upper Cretaceous. The Paleogene was a heyday for them. Nummulites are therefore used as guide fossils because they occur in many different forms of sedimentary rocks from this period. Herodotus thought that Nummulite was fossilized lentils from the pyramid builders.
Plantae - Lycopod
± 40 million yrs. BC
Wolf paw (Lycopodium) is a genus of plants from the clubmoss family (= Lycopodiaceae). Lycopods are a group of living and extinct plants that were hugely successful during the Paleozoic Era. In our present (2022) there are still living representatives. Pines are examples of this.
During the Carboniferous, scale trees, a group of extinct tree-sized lycopods, dominated. They formed some of the first swamp forests. Today, Lycopods are small plants with moss-like leaves. Because of their shape and appearance, some people confuse them with real mosses. Lycopods, however, are vascular plants and exhibit dichotomous branching. Spore cases sit atop specialized leaves. These are usually clumped together to form a cone with a club-like appearance. These cones in combination with the moss-like leaves were given the name "club moss".
Fossils are abundant worldwide. They first appeared in the Silurian, along with other vascular plants. From the Devonian some species became large and tree-like. During the Carboniferous, tree-like forms created huge forests that dominated the landscape. The leaves grew from all over the stable surface and branches. As the plant grew, the leaves fell off. Small clumps of leaves remained at the top. The trees are marked with diamond-shaped scars where they once had leaves. Climate change caused many species to become extinct in the Carboniferous. Tree-like species survived in China into the Permian. They regained dominance in the Triassic. The plants were no longer as large as the previous lycopods found.
Coprolite - Turtle
± 40 million yrs. BC
Turtles are an order of reptiles. All species are characterized by a spherical shield that is usually solid. They can differ in size, colors, and way of life. The outer shell makes them easy to distinguish from other reptiles. The carapace is bony and is located on the ventral side as well as the dorsal side. It is equipped with a second armor, the horn shield. They lay eggs to reproduce. Turtles develop very slowly and can become incredibly old. They feed on animal and vegetable matter, depending on the species. There are about 355 distinct species around the world. Dozens of species are seriously threatened by human activities.
More than two hundred million years BC, turtles emerged. If the Eunotosaurus is a tortoise, then the group would have been originated about 260 million years BC. They split off in the early Triassic and lived before the dinosaurs. The ancestors of the tortoises resembled lizards. During the evolution of the turtles, a strong carapace developed, and their jaws became toothless. The first turtles lived in the sea and had teeth. They did not have a double carapace yet. The tortoises must have left the water and developed into large and cumbersome reptiles with a large skull and armored backs. There is another theory that turtles evolved on land, and according to the characteristics of Eunotosaurus, the shell adapted to a burrowing lifestyle.
The kinship of turtles is difficult to determine. The different build and lifestyle of the tortoises cannot be compared to all modern groups of reptiles. Turtles may be more closely related to lizards or to crocodiles and birds. The studies are not in agreement. A fossil find of a 240-million-year-old tortoise would tend that the tortoise is more closely related to the lizards.
Previously extinct species could reach a length of four meters. They lived during the Late Cretaceous. The earliest known turtle could not retract the head into the carapace, had a longer neck and a long spiky tail that ended in a bulge reminiscent of the ankylosaurs.
Impactite - Azuara
± 38 million yrs. BC
This breccia is exposed near Almonacid de la Cuba, in Spain, and so far, unique regarding its structure and texture. Within a dense to porous and even foamy grayish carbonate matrix are embedded components of snow-white color, which in most cases are extremely vesicular. Analyzes conclude that the deposition is the result of an expanded, turbulent, and dilute flow due to incorporation of carbonate melt, like volcanic waves.
Priabonian Age
(37,8 million yrs. BC to 33,9 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Priabonian is the last age of the Eocene epoch. It lasted from 38 to 33,9 million years BC. It is preceded by the Bartonian Age and succeeded the Rupelian Age of the Oligocene Epoch. The Priabonian is named after the small hamlet of Priabona in the community of Monte de Malo, in the Veneto near Vicenza in northern Italy.
The base of the age is defined by the earliest occurrence of nannoplankton species ‘Chiasmolithus amanuensis’. The extinction of foram genus ‘Hantkenina’ marked the end of the Priabonian. This occurred right before a major change in the mammalian fauna of Europe and Asia. It was accompanied by a great mass extinction and is called the Grande Coupure Extinction.
New ocean circulation resulted in a significantly lower mean annual temperature, with greater variability and seasonality globally spanned. Due to the lower temperatures and increased seasonality, the body-size of mammals increased. That caused a shift towards open savanna-like vegetation, with corresponding reduction in forests.
Sea Urchin - Sismondia Occitana
± 35 million yrs. BC
Small, oval, and sub-pentagonal in outline with rounded edge. A sunken mouth rim. An apical disc in the center with 4 gonopores (= sex organs).
Mammal - Merycoidodon Culbertsoni
± 35 million yrs. BC
Oreodonts, also known as ruminant boars, were short, small mammals with heavy bodies, long tails and hoof-like toes. It grew to about 1,2 m (= four feet) tall and walked across the plains on short, stubby legs. The name means "mountain teeth" and refers to the sharp ridges of their teeth, which were ideal for grinding up the diverse foliage of grassy prairies, as well as roots and shoots in wooded areas.
It is an extinct family of small sheep-like Artiodactyls most closely related to camels and pigs, with no close relatives living today (2023). All are herbivores with a diet of leaves and young shoots. Oreodonts feed on different vegetation than many modern artiodactyls. They therefore occupied an ecologically different niche than many living ungulates. Top to date, these animals are only found in North America. Oreodonts would eventually rival the large and diverse extant populations of modern bovid artiodactyls in Africa (= antelope, wildebeest, and buffalo) or the equally diverse deer and goat populations of Asia. At first it was believed that these animals were related to modern-day pigs. In reality, the closest relative is the current camel, although it is quite far away.
Our specimen is just a jaw fragment of Merycoidodon cunbertsoni, a species of oreodont that lived about 35 million years BC in huge herds in North America. At the end of the Eocene, Earth's ecosystems began to change. A shift in climate and a decline in tropical zones created vast plains and grasslands, new ecosystems that would be home to never-before-seen flora and fauna. The animal species also had very powerful and long canine teeth next to their molars. The uses of those teeth are not so obvious. This genus existed about 30 million years. Supposedly, diminished food sources led to starvation and those that survived lived in weak herds, allowing the predators to catch more. They lived in large herds, probably for protection against predators of the time. The flat molars tore and crushed tough plant material. Without their specialized function, the Merycoidodon's diet would have been impossible.
Oligocene Epoch
(33,9 million yrs. BC to 23,03 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The geological epoch Oligocene is an era that lasted about 11 million years. It comes after the Eocene Epoch and is succeeded by the Miocene Epoch in the Neogene Period. The exact dates of the start and end of the epoch are slightly uncertain, as usual with geologic periods. Oligocene comes from the ancient Greek ‘oligos’ (= ‘few’) and ‘kainos’ (= ‘new’). It refers to the sparsity of extant forms of mollusks. It is the third and final epoch of the Paleogene Period.
The Oligocene is often considered an important time of transition, a link between the archaic world of the tropical Eocene and the more modern ecosystems of the Miocene. Major changes included a global expansion of grasslands and a regression of tropical broad leaf forests to the equatorial belt.
In the Oligocene, the South Pole was partly covered with glaciers. It was getting colder Tropical vegetation largely disappeared from moderate latitudes and extensive grasslands began to emerge. The Atlantic Ocean opened more and more, while the tropical Tethys Sea was increasingly oppressed by the northward movement of Africa and India. The Alpine mountain ranges were increasingly taking shape, as were the Himalayas.
At the start of the Oligocene, it was probably slightly warmer than today (2021). It is marked by a notable extinction event “Grande Coupure”. New species of mammals appeared, which originated in Asia. These included rhinoceroses, hamsters, and beavers. Other animal groups became extinct, probably due to the newcomers, except for the endemic rodent and marsupial families. The occurrence of certain snail groups, such as ‘Cerithium’ species in lagoons, indicates the lack of cold winters. The cooling continued during the Oligocene but at the end it started to get warmer again.
Marine fauna was poor in the Oligocene Epoch at the start. By the end, marine life became more species rich. Mainly due to the emergence of new species that lived exclusively in the North Sea area. Another group that emerged strongly was the insects. Among the primates, the first species resembling modern apes appeared.
Silicate - Rhodonite
± 33,9 million yrs. BC to ± 23,03 million yrs. BC
The rhodonite comes from the region of Monte Ballerino of the Aquan Alps, a mountain range with a roughly shape. The name Alps comes from their very typical alpine appearance of their high peaks.
The Aquan Alps host a number of mineral deposits that display a great variety of mineralization styles and assemblages. This should be the results of several events that span the entire geological history of the region.
Rupelian Age
(33,9 million yrs. BC to 28,1 million yrs. BC)
Chattian Age
(28,1 million yrs. BC to 23,03 million yrs. BC)
What happened?
The Chattian Age is a geological time scale of the Oligocene Epoch. It is the second of two ages. It spans about 5 million years. The Chattian is preceded by the Rupelian Age and is followed by the Aquitanian Age, the first of the Miocene Epoch in the Neogene Period.
It is named after the Germanic tribe de Chatten, who lived near the German city of Kassel. The base of the Chattian Age is at the extinction of the foram genus ‘Chiloguembelina’.
Jaw with teeth. Found: Brooksville, Hernando County, Florida, US (JN0492-0)
Vertebra. Found: Brooksville, Hernando County, Florida, US (JN0492-1)
Os Quatratum. Found: Brooksville, Hernando County, Florida, US (JN0492-2)
Reptile - Iguana Anolis
± 28 million yrs. BC
The fossils were found in rock crevices and are interpreted as the inhabitants and prey of animals that lived in the cave system. The presence of bat fossils confirms the idea that these fissures were part of a cave system. The material is part of the microfauna. You need a magnifying glass or microscope to get a good look at these fossils.
Anolis is a genus of lizards. There are about 425 species, and it is one of the largest genera in the reptile world. The word anolis comes from an ancient African language. It means "little devil".
Most species have a green to brown color. They can change color, which probably has to do with the animal's state of mind. Almost all of them possess a dewlap, a thin membrane of skin that can be stretched. Most have adhesive lamella under the legs, which makes them good for climbing.
Their teeth are placed in grooves in the jaw and not in cavities or holes. These animals can lose their tails and allow them to regenerate. Comparison of the intrinsic muscles of the original tail and the regenerated tail muscles reveals missing interlocking muscle segments and intramuscular partitions in the regenerated tail. Interlocking vertebrae are replaced by a stiff, cartilaginous rod. It is logical to assume that a regenerated tail has important functional differences.
The quadrate bone is involved in the suspension of the lower jaw from the skull. The shape is extremely important.
Teeth. Found: Brooksville, Hernando County, Florida, US (JN0648)
Mammal - Megalagus Abaconis
± 28 million yrs. BC
These rare specimens of two complete teeth of the rabbit Megalagus abaconis are part of the microfauna. They are only small and come from the Brooksville 2 site in Florida. The fossils are found in rock crevices. The rare material has been excellently preserved. All fossils found are interpreted as the inhabitants and prey of animals that lived in the cave system. We have enlarged the teeth to get a good view.
The species was described in 2000 by FG Hayes. Not much is known about these animals yet. The extinct species of rabbits were grazers. More information can be found about the genus Megalagus. The animal could weigh about 2 kg. Well-preserved finds are rare. They are the ancestors of our present-day rabbit (2022). Modern rabbits have very large eyes. They mainly live in open areas and therefore have good eyesight. Their ancestors lived in forests and scrubland in North America. Smell played a more important role than for its modern-day relatives. The changing eyesight of these animals is related to the changing environment already visible in the genus Megalagus.
In addition, vertebrate fossils of at least 27 mammal species were found at the Brooksville 2 site. New species of rodents, insectivores, the lagomorph Megalagus abaconis, and some carnivores were found there for the first time.
Traces of Nourishing Teredo Worms. Found: Kobrow, Germany (JN0224)
Petrified Wood
± 27,7 million yrs. BC to ± 23,03 million yrs. BC
Petrified wood is a fossil of a piece of tree. Because the tree has fallen and was covered with a layer of soil or sand, such a fossil is formed. Often a natural disaster is linked to this. The colors seen in a petrified fossil depend on the minerals in the soil. Each mineral provides its own color. From then on, we speak of "petrified" wood, a process that ensures that the characteristics such as bark, annual rings and knots, the hard dark place in the wood, are preserved. Sometimes a rotting process also occurred, forming beautiful crystals with multiple colors.
Teredo is a genus of mollusks known as a fossil from the Eocene. This bivalve pole worm contains serrated, convex T-shaped valves. Below the lock is a long, thin lever for the muscle attachment. They lived in groups in floating and sunken wood, in tunnels drilled in submerged wood. They use their shells like a drill to drill a hole.
They live by filtering seawater from plankton. The seawater enters and exits the body through two long siphons protruding from the rear of the shellfish. The worm is protected from predators because it lives in the wood. The piece of wood is completely hollowed out. A worm never enters another worm's tunnel. The tunnel walls are covered with very thin layers of lime.
Later, such a worm did a lot of damage to ships. That is why the hull was treated with tar and creosote. But scaffolding and other wooden structures were terribly damaged by the pole worms.