Age of Discovery (Europe)
(1400 to 1770)
What happened?
The Age of Discovery is an informal and loosely defined era for he Early Modern Period in European history, in which sea-faring European nations explored regions across the globe. Much of the world was mapped in this way, while a real-world economy was created. Initially it mainly concerned trade contracts. After the discoveries, large scale colonization began.
The extensive overseas exploration, led by the Portuguese and the Spanish, emerged as a powerful factor in European culture, most notably the European discovery of the Americas. An increased adoption of colonization marks a national policy in Europe. Several previously unknown lands were discovered thought most were already inhabited.
The first major European voyages of discovery were those of the Portuguese. In 1415, as an extension of the Reconquista, the Portuguese conquered the wealthy Cueta in Morocco, the end point of trade caravans from West Africa.
In the 15th century, the Portuguese sailed further and further off the African coasts. Bartolomeu Diaz reached Cape of Good Hope in 1488.Vasco da Gama established the sea route to India in 1498. The crown of Castile (Spain) sponsored the transatlantic voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas between 1492 and 1504. In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil. Cochin on the Indian west coast became a Portuguese colony in 1503, the first European in Asia. The first circumnavigation of the globe was established by Ferdinand Magellan between 1519 and 1522 but completed by Juan Sebastián Elcano. The Ottoman Empire’s monopoly on transit from Asia to Europe was thus broken. The European ships were sturdy enough to carry cannons and fire without falling apart, something the ships from the Indian Ocean could not do.
The discovery of America in the name of the Spanish king had even greater consequences. Until then, the Atlantic had functioned as the impassable western frontier of the world of Europeans. This changed from then on. A New World literally opened for the Europeans. The Age of Discoveries led to the rise of global trade and the European colonial empires with the contact between the Old World (Europe, Africa, and Asia) and the New World (the Americas). A wide transfer of plants, animals, food, human populations (including slaves), diseases and culture between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. New diseases were propagated, decimating populations not previously in contact with the Old World, particularly Native Americans. The era saw the enslavement, exploitation, military conquest, and economic dominance and spread of European civilization with superior technology by Europe.
Botanical Engraving of P.A. Mattioli. Found: Berlin, Germany (JN0243)
Houseplant
± 1572
Up to and including the Middle Ages we looked at a plant practically as food, kitchen herb, medicine and sometimes in a vase, but a plant grew outside. There was minimal trade in ornamental plants for the gardens of the wealthy or at funerals and festivals.
The voyages of discovery in modern times introduced Europe to many new species. They were housed in botanical gardens for the sake of science.
Most houses in the 19th century were dark, dusty and in winter, cold. The first houseplants were therefore species that could withstand something, such as: ferns and palms. The ornamental plant was brought indoors around 1850. The emergence of bourgeois culture with a morality of family and domesticity. It was reflected in the townhouse, which was supposed to radiate warmth and security. The houseplant fitted in well with that. The growing urbanization pushed nature to the background. At the same time, a romantic conception of nature emerged, idealized as a model of purity and harmony. The houseplant provided balance. Later species such as begonias, primulas, bromeliads, orchids, cineraria, fuchsias, hederas, clivias and cyclamens were added. The plant became all the craze, especially in better environments. The less fortunate had no money, time, and space for it.
From 1870 onwards it was thought to be able to "elevate" man through education and teaching. An ally was seen in the houseplant. So-called Floralia associations were established here and there. The aim was to encourage the common man to take care of the houseplants. Cuttings were distributed. Anyone who managed to grow the most beautiful plant could count on a prize. They were convinced that keeping plants had a civilized effect. The lady of the house could let off steam in the arrangement of her green children. Plants arranged in corners, on special tables, hanging, on the windowsills or containers. It was all allowed.
In 1873 the association "Floralia" was founded by M.A. Perk, chairman, founded in Amsterdam with a telling addition: "Association for civilization through the cultivation of plants". Care for plants led to: Developing the sense of beauty.
The first handbooks on the care of indoor plants were published in 1880. The compilers showed a certain contradiction in bringing the plant into an unnatural environment such as the living room. "De La Blanchère", translated into Dutch, "The Houseplant", described this: "exiles who had been snatched from their environment". Other handbooks talked about: Captivity of the Plants. Many plants received inadequate care.
Excess was the norm in 1901. Yet there were limits. Decorating the plant with bows and ribbons is bad taste. Which plants in our homes are subject to fashion. The abundant use of indoor plants declined after WWI, for modesty, in tune with austere interiors. With increasing prosperity, the houseplant really emerged after WWII.
In the Netherlands and Belgium there was a preference for species such as: the sanseveria (mainly known as the mother-in-law’s tongue), the staghorn and the geranium in the 1960s. In the 1970s there was a tendency back to nature again. Species such as the ficus and the Citrus limon showed up more.
The plant appears to be a home accessory in 21st century interior fashion. The houseplant as a redeemable thing. There are now (2021) also people who are concerned about the fate of the plant that has fallen from grace. It leads to a phenomenon: the plant shelter. Discarded plants and fading specimens are collected by volunteers and brought back to a new home.