Gilded Age (the United States)
(1875 to 1900)
What happened?
The Gilded Age are the tumultuous years between the Civil War and the turn of the 20th century. America became more prosperous and saw unprecedented growth in industry and technology. It had a more sinister side to. It was a period where greedy, corrupt industrialists, bankers and politicians enjoyed extraordinary wealth and opulence at the expense of the working class. The wealthy tycoons held the most political power during the Gilded Age.
As American wages grew much higher than in Europe, certainly for skilled workers, the period saw an influx of millions of European immigrants. The rapid expansion of industrialization led to a real wage growth of 60%, between 1860 and 1890. Controversially, the Gilded Age was an era of abject poverty and inequality, as millions of poor immigrants poured into the United States. The high concentration of wealth became visible.
Railroads were the major growth industry, with the factory system, mining and finance increasing in importance. The construction of railways connecting the east and west coasts allowed rapid penetration into the still wild area between them, based on farming, ranching, and mining. Labor unions became important in the rapidly growing industrial cities. There were two major nationwide depressions in 1873 and 1893. These caused social and political upheavals while the growth interrupted. The South became increasingly tied to commodities, cotton, and tobacco production. With the end of the Reconstruction Era in 1877, African American people were stripped of their political power and voting rights. For the Native Americans, all this led to their decline, especially as the bison was being pushed near extinction.
The political landscape election turnout was very high and national elections saw two evenly matched parties. The dominant issues were cultural regarding prohibition, education, ethnic or racial groups. The second issues were economic like tariffs and money supply. Political machines took control of urban politics due corruption. Powerful nationwide trusts formed in some industries. Unions crusaded for the eight-hour working day, and the abolition of child labor. Middle class reformers demanded civil service reform, prohibition of liquor and beer and women’s suffrage.
Public high schools started to emerge. In the North and West of the US. Catholicism became the largest religion. All religious denominations expanded their missionary activity to the world arena. Catholics, Lutherans, and Episcopalians set up religious schools and numerous colleges, hospitals, and charities. The Gilded Age coincided with the mid-Victorian Era in Britain and the Belle Époque in France. It was followed by the Progressive Era.
Found: Higganum, Connecticut,, US (JN0133)
Toilet Paper
± 1877
During the prehistory, people have always looked for ways to cleanse the buttocks after a bowel movement. Materials came from the immediate vicinity such as: grass, hay or leaves, shells, stones, coconut shells, rounded potsherds to scrape the anal area clean.
During the Ancient Near East, the Japanese used special wooden sticks as a scraper: called Chuugi.
The Romans used a sponge attached to a stick during the classical antiquity. Wielded it between the buttocks. After the cleaning, the sponge was placed in a jar of salt water for the next person.
The Chinese scholar Yan Zhitui did not dare to use paper with Confucian texts as toilet paper out of reverence. The Chinese were the first to use paper in the year 589. Paper was already being reused at that time. Arabs found the Chinese custom to be remarkable and stale in 591. They themselves wash the buttocks and hand with water after a bowel movement.
In 1393, the precious paper was not reserved for the ordinary Chinese. Toilet paper was made only for the imperial court. An annual output of 720.000 sheets. Not exactly handy, about 60 by 90 cm. The end user still had to tear off pieces. Paper for the imperial family was also perfumed. Imperial toilet use remained a major exception. With the rise of the industrial paper industry, during the 19th century, paper was able to develop as an affordable alternative.
The American Joseph Gayetty released ‘Gayetty's Medicated Paper’ in 1857. A blessing to human health. Hemorrhoids would be prevented by using his paper. Sold in bundles of 500 small sheets. Each sheet bore the manufacturer's name as a water brand. A package cost 50 cents. That was still too expensive for most Americans. The cost-effective alternative: the paper of the many free mail-order catalogs distributed in America. The toilet paper was good, it just would not catch on.
Albany Perforated Wrapping Paper Co. figured in 1877 that toilet paper on a roll was more convenient. Introductions of perforations for easy tearing off.
The word "toilet paper" first appears in the New York Times in 1888. The growth of toilet paper coincided with the emergence of water toilets and the associated sewage system. Toilet manufacturers make paper that quickly disintegrates in contact with water, preventing sewer blockage.
The introduction of color images at the start of the 20th century, by mail order company Sears, Roebuck and Co. sparked much grumbling. Was successful in part due to the thickness of his catalog and the rough composition of his paper. The ideal butt wiper for many Americans, but the color images on the smoother print did not wipe as well.
Rinsing with water is preferred in the 20th century in India, Arab and African countries. In the Soviet Union, toilet paper, like many other products, was often difficult to obtain and required a long queue. Newspapers were used as toilet paper in countries of the Eastern Bloc. Some believed that government magazines were also the best practice. In communist Eastern European countries, it was customary to always have strips of newspaper with you. The toilet paper that was there was very rough.
The first toilet paper was fine but could be better. Initially you ran a risk of a wood splinter. Introduction of the guaranteed splinter-free toilet paper in 1932.
Toilet paper was used more as a means of propaganda and ridicule in England during WWII. Toilet paper with the image of Hitler and many US presidents got their toilet roll. In 1942 it is thought that two layers of paper should be even softer. Meanwhile in 2021: four-layer paper, paper with air cushions, in all colors and prints, plenty of choice.
In 2006 clever Dutch entrepreneurs released toilet paper with the German flag on it, due to the football feud between the Netherlands and Germany during the World Cup.
Authentic Helmet Mask Replica. Found: Hopi Reservation, Arizona, US (JN0283)
Hopi (People)
± 1880
The Hopi are Native American people in Arizona, USA. They are part of the Puebloans culture, also known as the Anasazi. Hopi is an abbreviation of the term "Hopituh Sinom" (= "the people of Hopi") who they use themselves. In the past they were also called "Moki" or "Mogui".
There are about 18.000 Hopi spread over 11 autonomous villages in 2010, living in their characteristic terraced Pueblo buildings. The Hopis believe that kachinas are spirits, and that these spirits enable them to live in harmony with nature, ensure rain, crops, fertility, and good hunting. The Hopi men imitate these kachinas by wearing masks and dancing in the squares of the villages.
The Hopi first met non-Americans when members of Coronado’s party entered their country in 1540. The first missionary arrived in 1629. The Spanish did make the Indians swear to the Spanish Crown and attempted to undermine their religious beliefs. The Hopis joined the Pueblo rebellion of 1680, because of that. They destroyed all local missions and established new pueblos at the top of the Black Mesa. The Hopi remained free of Christianity for almost 200 years. During the 19th century, the Hopi endured and increased in Navajo raiding. Later they encountered again non-natives. The US government established a Hopi reservation in 1882.
The railroad began bringing trading posts, tourists, missionaries, and scholars. These changes brought disease epidemics that reduced the Hopi population dramatically. Following the Dawes Act of 1887, surveyors came in preparation for parceling the land into individual allotments. The Hopi met them with armed resistance. Hopi leaders were imprisoned, although there was no fighting. New schools were known for brutal discipline and policies geared towards cultural genocide. The Hopi refused to send their children to school. The children were kidnapped and sent to the schools anyway.
The development led in 1906 to the division of Oraibi, which had been continuously occupied since al least 1100, into 5 villages. After WWII, contact with the outside world increased. The US decision to divide the Hopi and Navajo Reservations into grazing districts resulted in the loss of most Hopi land. A major disagreement between the tribes and the government was the result. This continues to this day (2021).
The mask is made from black poplar wood (= Populus), a popular tree in Virginia. It represents the Golden Eagle. The beak and the small wooden wings can move. The whole is painted with traditional geometric. US law prohibits the sale of sacred items of Amerindian art. That is why this mask is a Hopi-style reproduction.
Tombstone
± 1881
The town of Tombstone is located in the US state of Arizona. It was founded in 1879. In its early years it grew explosively due to the mining industry in the area. By 1881 Tombstone had 1000 inhabitants. A year later it was between 5000 and 15.000 inhabitants. Tombstone lay relatively isolated in a vast and unpopulated desert area. Gangs known as "Cowboys" quickly came into conflict with the residents of Tombstone.
On October 26, 1881, there was an armed clash between a group of "Cowboys" and law enforcement officers led by Sheriff Wyatt Earp. The gunfight at the O.K. Corral became legendary and has become a symbol of the Wild West. Books and films have been made around the theme. The reason for the encounter was the robbery of a stagecoach, in which two people were killed. Earp claimed that McLaury and his friends were the culprits.
A corral was a kind of stable that could be rented out. Cowboys could take care of their horses there or have them cared for. Sometimes small herds of cattle were housed there. The fight at the O.K. Corral went between two groups of men. Wyatt Earp, his brothers Morgan and Virgil, and Doc Holliday took on the cowboys Frank McLaury and his brother Tom, with Billy and Ike Clanton and Billy Claiborne. According to Earp, his allies were nothing more or less than cattle thieves and murderers. Critics argue that Earp himself was a bandit who only pretended to enforce the law.
The firefight lasted no more than 30 seconds. Ike Clanton and Billy Claiborne were arrested. The remaining three cowboys were killed. The event is controversial. Some argue that it was a correct attempt to arrest cattle thieves and the cowboys started shooting. Others claim it was a settlement between two rival gangs. When the cowboys wanted to surrender, they were nevertheless slaughtered in cold blood. The statements of eyewitnesses are not clear.
A year after the firefight, the city fell into disrepair. Several mines in the area were exhausted and a fire destroyed parts of the city.
Boothill Graveyard is the small graveyard with at least 250 graves. It was first called "Old City Cemetery" and after 1883 only used to bury outlaws and a few others. Nearby was a separate Jewish cemetery. The name refers to the number of men who died with their boots on. Which means they were shot.
Brooklyn Bridge
± 1883
The Brooklyn Bridge is a bridge in New York and is one of the oldest suspension bridges in the United States. Proposals for a bridge had been proposed as early as 1800. The current bridge was conceived in 1852. In 1867 a master plan was presented. In early 1869, some people began to criticize the project. The bridge would be too expensive, or the construction project would be too difficult. Construction began in 1870. Numerous controversies and the novelty of the design extended the project for more than 13 years.
First the caissons were built, then the piers on which the towers were built. Cables were hung between the towers. After the suspender wires were in place, workers began setting up steel crossbeams to support the roadways. Completed in 1883, it connects the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn via the East River. With a main span of 1.595,5 feet (483,3 m), it was the longest suspension bridge in the world from its opening until 1903, and the first steel wire suspension bridge. To ease increasing traffic flows, additional bridges and tunnels were built across the East River. The Brooklyn Bridge has been renovated several times. Including in the 1950s, 1980s and 2010.
At the time of its opening, the Brooklyn Bridge was not complete. Public transport across the bridge had yet to be evaluated. Jumbo the elephant, was circus master PT Barnum's most famous attraction. In 1884, the circus led a parade of 21 elephants across the Brooklyn Bridge. This helped to dispel doubts from the bridge.
Originally referred to as the New York and Brooklyn Bridge and the East River Bridge, a name from an earlier letter dated January 25, 1867, to the editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, and formally named the Brooklyn Bridge by the city government in 1915. It is the most southern of the four free vehicle bridges between Manhattan Island and Long Island. It is only accessible for passenger cars, pedestrian, and bicycle traffic. In 1898 trolley tracks were installed in the middle lanes. Since opening, it has become a New York City icon, being designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964 and a National Historic Landmark of Civil Engineering in 1972. Over the years, the bridge has been used as a venue for various stunts and performances, as well as for various crimes and attacks.
Antique Kugal Silver Colored Glass Witch Ball. Found: Galena, Illinois, US (JN0121)
Christmas Bauble
± 1884
The use of decorated Christmas trees stems from the 16th century on from the role sacred trees played in the worship of ancient pagan gods. The tree, often an oak, was a kind of gate to the spiritual world. Offerings were hung from the branches. This pre-Christian tree cult from Alsace, Germany transformed into the Christian Christmas tree we know today (2021). Decorated with apples and cookies in a square. On Epiphany the children could shake the tree to get some treats. Slowly the Christmas tree spread across the German countries and more and more a place in the house.
Raw materials such as wood, potash, quartz, or sand were readily available. The first glass hut, where glass is made and blown, is mentioned in an act from 1597 from Lauscha in Germany. Blowing baubles was not known at the time. Witch balls, large, mirrored glass balls, placed at the entrance of a house or yard, to ward off evil spirits, did exist.
A glassblower in the village of Lauscha, Germany, invented in 1830 to blow the tiny glass beads made as Christmas decorations into glass balls.
They were quite heavy, but during the 19th century improved technology made the glass thinner. Making Christmas baubles was a home industry. Blowing was a man's job. Applying a mirroring layer was women's work. Based on tin and lead, an unhealthy job. A great success among the more affluent Germans. For the time being, the less fortunate stuck to painted pinecones, apples, and ribbons. Traders bought up the balls and took them to warehouses. From there they sold the fragile commodities. Lauscha developed into the Christmas ball capital of the world, for a long time all Christmas balls came from there.
The first Christmas tree in the Netherlands for the arrival of Herman Nalop’s, chest trader, sister, and her son, was in 1842. The 7.000 German migrants who lived in Amsterdam ensured that the Christmas tree could make a triumphal march in the Netherlands. The many German family ties of the Dutch royal family will have helped.
The Ajeko company from Hemiksem, Belgium, founded by Alfred Jezelin, a German immigrant, produces baubles in 1938 with the patented glass eyelet on which to hang them. The use of the Christmas tree started in Belgium after WWII. Cause: Fewer Germans established and the royal family, also German, did not set the example.
An abrupt end to the boom of the German and Czech Christmas bauble industry through WWII. The trade is taken over by America and Japan.
The First Nijmegen Glass Blower Th.A.W. Beens established in 1946. In the 1950s it filed for bankruptcy, despite the appreciation of the royals.
The rise of the plastic ball in the 1950s. A real enthusiast will be against this. Ajeko settles in 1952 in Luxembourg.
Types of glass Christmas decorations: Birds, Santa Clauses and Angels; Glass U-boats and soldiers (WWI); Zeppelin (1930s); Christmas balls with Germanic runes and the swastika (attempted to transform Christmas into an Aryan celebration by the Nazis.
The Christmas tree continues to appeal to the imagination with its shiny decoration. All those twinkling lights that are multiplied by the mirrored balls. Depicting emotions like light and hope in the dark winter days of December. It also appeals to other cultures. Sometimes a Christmas bauble is used as a statement.
Washington Monument
± 1884
George Washington's military and political leadership was indispensable to the founding of the United States. As commander of the Continental Army, he gathered Americans from thirteen different states and outlived Britain's superior fighting force. As the first president, his outstanding leadership set the standard for every president who succeeded him. The Washington Monument towers over the city that bears his name. Serving as an awe-inspiring reminder of George Washington's greatness, it stands in the center of the American capital.
The memorial was designed by Robert Mills but completed by Thomas Casey and the US Army Corps of Engineers. It has known two construction phases. The first one was private (1848-1854) while the second was a public stage (1876-1884). It is built like an Egyptian obelisk, evoking the timelessness of ancient civilizations. When completed, the Washington Monument was the tallest building in the world.
Construction of the Washington Monument began in 1848 despite difficulties in raising funds. The builders started working on the square step pyramid with a blue gneiss foundation. After the substructure was completed, the builders moved on to above-ground marble construction, using a system of pulleys, block and hoist systems and a mounted derrick to lift the stones. In 1854, some events halted construction.
The financing went bankrupt. Without money, the work came to a standstill. The architect died in 1855. All attempts of Congress failed. It wasn't until the nation was rebuilding after the Civil War that the project returned to focus. In 1876 the finishing of the monument was started by strengthening the foundations. After that, the builders needed stones to continue building. The problem was that the Baltimore quarry, which was used for the first part, was no longer available. A quarry in Massachusetts provided the new material. The quality and color of the stone and the irregular deliveries caused problems. The difference remains visually visible. For the top two-thirds of the structure, they found material from a third quarry near Baltimore. The stone never exactly matched the different colors of the other quarries.
The originally planned height of 182 m was changed to an optimal 170 m. The planned wall decorations were dropped in favor of the clean look of the simple obelisk. Between the 45 and 48 m levels, the thickness of the walls was reduced. 143 m Above the ground, the builders began to fish in buttresses to support the marble top. In 1884 the aluminum apex was placed on top of the keystone. Visitors see inside the Washington Monument memorial stones of various persons that were placed in the wall.
Our small piece of marble of the Washington Monument was cut from a large piece that was removed from the monument in 1958. Due to the nearly 170 m height of the structure, aircraft warning lights were required by the middle of the 20th century. The need was caused by the increase in commercial air traffic and the proximity to Reagan National Airport. 8 Lamps were added in 1958. Holes had to be made in the structure on each side for the placement of 2 lamps. The 8 holes were drilled into 8 circular templates drawn on the monument, all with a split in the middle, making a total of 16 semicircles. The final process resulted in 8 very circular openings on the monument. These had rough edges which were then finished smooth by chiseling, grinding, and sanding. A member of the Seal family, the electrician who removed the piece, sold one of the 16 pieces.
Statue of Liberty
± 1886
The Statue of Liberty is a statue in city of New York, USA. that symbolizes freedom, one of the core values of the United States. It counts as a sign of welcome to all. The statue measures 46 meters high or 93 meters including the pedestal.
France donated the statue in honor of the Declaration of Independence and as a sign of friendship. In her left hand, she is holding a plaque where the date July 4, 1776, is written in Roman numerals. On the pedestal is the sonnet 'The New Colossus' by the Jewish poet Emma Lazarus from 1883. It is said to express American hospitality.
The prototype dates from 1870 and is in the Luxembourg Garden in Paris. It was intended as a lighthouse at the northern entrance of the Suez Canal. Egypt, however, had no money for it. The mother of the French design and sculptor, Frédéric Bartholdi, is said to have served as a model. Gustave Eiffel designed the iron framework for the large variant in the US. The statue was completed in France in 1884.
In 1885, the statue arrived in New York Harbor. During the crossing, the statue consisted of 350 pieces. The pedestal was finished in 1886. The Statue of Liberty was reassembled over 4 months. It consists entirely of copper plates attached to the framework. The pedestal was made of granite. The crown consists of seven points, symbolizing the seven continents and seas.
In 1924 the statue was designated a National Monument. All of Bedloe's Island renamed Liberty Island after adding it to the memorial in 1935. Ellis Island was also added to the National Monument in 1965.
The statue was restored between 1984 and 1986. The torch with 24 carat gold leaf flame has been replaced. The Statue of Liberty was put on the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1984. After the attacks on September 11, 2001, the statue was closed to the public for years. To increase the safety of visitors and to guarantee the preservation of the statue, it was restored again in 2003. Since 2004 you can visit the Statue of Liberty again. The public visit to the crown of the Statue of Liberty did not happen until 2009.
In Paris, near the Eiffel Tower, there is a smaller copy of the Statue of Liberty. However, the copy has a book in hand with the date of the French Revolution. An exact copy of the flame of the Statue of Liberty is located near the Pont de l'Alma in Paris. This flame is considered an unofficial memorial to Princess Diana who died at the Alma Tunnel. Another copy is in front of the New York-New York Hotel in Las Vegas. There is also a copy in Tokyo.
We present some authentic shavings from the Statue of Liberty Ellis National Monument. They come from a legally obtained piece of copper that was removed during the renovations between 1984 and 1986. While all the copper on the Statue of Liberty appears green, only the very thin outer portion of the copper cladding has turned green. This is due to exposure to the elements over the years. What is natural for copper. The unexposed parts of copper do not remain green internally. These parts are all clean and clear.
A Southern Barbecue Wood Engraving. Found: Exeter, New Hamphire, US (JN0595)
Barbecue
± 1887
In 1492 Columbus saw the custom of slowly cooking meat over a smoldering fire in the Caribbean. Not only was that tasty, but it also kept longer. That cooking is done on a raised grid made of young green branches: the 'barbacoa'. The Spaniards explored the southern part of North America in the 16th century and saw the barbacoa there as well. The English settlers changed the word barbacoa to 'barbecue' as a name for roasting whole pigs “in the Indian way”. In the southern states, the barbecue became important to the culture. They were big parties that went on until early. There was beverage, music, and dancing. Everyone loved it.
One chronicler noted in the 18th century: “I actually saw a lady devour an entire pig's head, excluding the bones.” The Southern BBQ had a character of its own. A long trench was dug in which wood was burned to embers. Pieces of meat were laid on stakes over the pit. During cooking, the meat was regularly turned and rubbed with a spice mixture based on butter, salt and vinegar or mustard. The slaves performed this work on the plantation. There were also annual barbecues for the slaves themselves. It was a high point in their sad and monotonous slave life. The former slave, Louis Hughes, publishes his life story in 1897: "No matter how hard the past year had been, the barbecue made it all forget. Even those who would be punished that day seemed resigned to it.”
The “backyard barbecue” came into fashion from 1900 as a translation of the large-scale traditional barbecue to the intimate circle of the family. No trenches are dug. Whoever has a garden builds a stone barbecue with an iron grill for the meat. There were also movable metal barbecue devices such as now (2022). A ride in the car for a barbecue in the great outdoors became a popular weekend activity. Under the influence of Hollywood, the Southern barbecue, as a country party, grew into a romanticized symbol of the Southern “way of life”. The barbecue scene from the 1939 film classic ‘Gone with The Wind’ is an example of this.
WWII gave the barbecue a 'boost'. In a 1943 American newspaper, “charcoal grill madness” had become epidemic. Due to the shortage of petrol, car trips on Sundays were limited. The “backyard barbecue” was a great alternative. The fancier of the traditional southern barbecue saw this development with regret. The barbecue will succumb to its popularity and become tasteless, while the word will be misused for anything prepared outdoors.
Wina Born, mother of Dutch gastronomy, calls the barbecue in 1959 “tasty primal entertainment for modern people”. She still traditionally addressed the housewife. “Grant it to the men, they are more primitive than women. Take action if necessary." Around 1960 the barbecue finds its way to Europe. He wasn't very well known yet. De Telegraaf (= The Telegraph), an Amsterdam newspaper, wrote in 1961 about “a fashion phenomenon that has come over from America in which 'raw meat is roasted on a charcoal fire''. Because of the heavy smoke development, it was important to be good friends with the neighbors. It was not so smart of the newly established “Foundation for Information Meat, Meat and Meat Conservation” to set up a demonstration barbecue in a closed room.
The barbecue has become part of western food culture. In the past, the barbecue mainly revolved around meat. Now (2022) there are plenty of vegetarian variants. Modern barbecues are technological marvels and culinary barbecues is half a science.
The Life of Benjamin Franklin. Found: Brunswick, Maryland, US (JN0128)
To Kite
± 1889
Nobody knows exactly when the first kite flew. It is certain that the Far East was the cradle. Light materials such as silk and bamboo were abundant. It was about 988 BC a form of game in China, and sometimes a more serious role, e.g., flying kites to confuse the enemy. Stories of men who were quickly moved to the kites are too fantastic to be true.
In China, General Han Xin, 200 AD, measured the exact distance to the walls of a besieged city by kite. This way he knew the length of the tunnel he had to dig to take the city.
Kite-like objects in the shape of a dragon-shaped windsock or banner, were called "draco" by the Romans in Classical Antiquity. In many European countries that word is derived for the kite.
The book "Nobilitatus", from 1326, by author Walter de Milemete, shows how English soldiers put a finned draco on a leash over a city to drop an incendiary bomb on it. The addition of the bomb probably originated in the draftsman's imagination.
The kite appears everywhere in all its glory in the 17th century. Dutch sailors probably brought the kite from Asia to Europe. In a short time, it became an unprecedented children's toy. It was easy and cheap to make it yourself. The oldest real kite in a European image can be found in "Proteus of Sinne- en Minnebeelden" from 1618 by Jacob Cats, Dutch poet (1577-1660).
From the 18th century onwards, the time of the Enlightenment led to an increasing scientific interest in the toy.
Alexander Wilson (1714-1786) in Scotland was the first to measure the air temperature at different altitudes in 1749 with the help of kites.
The mythically dangerous experiment happened in 1752 by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790). During a thunderstorm he launched a kite with a metal key attached to it, which in turn was connected to a Leyden jar, a primitive precursor to our battery. When lightning struck the key, the Leiden bottle was electrically charged, and it was proven that lightning was an electrical phenomenon. This is described in our acquisition "The Life of Benjamin Franklin", by O. L. Holley, ± 1889.
In the construction of a railway bridge in America in 1842 over the Niagara River, just downstream from the famous falls, a kite was used by Charles Ellet, engineer (1810-1862). Usually, a first line was transferred by boats. The river was wide and wild in the area. Ellet organized a kite competition, and the winner could take the first line with his kite across the river.
In the late 19th century, Samuel Franklin Cody, (1867-1913), began his colorful career in circus-like wild-west shows. He developed kites capable of carrying a grown man into the air. This especially attracted the attention of the military. His designs found application as an observation post high in the sky.
The Wright brothers were the first to fly a powered airplane in 1903 and experimented with kite models.
After WWI, the kite was widely used for military purposes, for example as a training target, or as a shield from the airspace.
After WWII, the kite becomes a form of sporting relaxation again, which it had originally been. The kite has developed from the simple rhombus of the past to aerodynamic models in use for spectacular kite surfing. And to enormous kites that can be used to tow large sea-going vessels, saving fuel by up to thirty percent.
In 2004, a regulation will be incorporated into the municipal law of De Panne, Belgium. Kite flying is bound by rules because more often larger kites were spotted with a hard point, who may or may not pull a cart. They were a danger to other beach users during the summer period. Public safety must be guaranteed.
Iron Adjustable Gas Lamp Bracket. Found: Bellport, New York, US (JN0298)
Gas
± 1890
Jan Pieter Minckelers, professor, University of Leuven, discovered in 1774 in Maastricht that a combustible gas is released when coal is heated without oxygen. He lit his lecture hall in Leuven with his gas in 1785. The students were deeply impressed.
In 1813, London was the first city to get gas streetlamps, the gaslight. Somewhere a great fire of coal was being made. The vapor was carried into the houses through pipes underground and ignited.
Brussels begins in 1818 with gas lighting, which was made in gas factories, transported via pipes, and stored in gas holders. These buildings dominated the cityscape. Leuven, Tournai, Liège, Ghent, and Charleroi followed in 1835.
In 1837 Paris, France, starts with gas lighting. Nevertheless, the use of gas in mainland Europe was still limited.
The construction of gas factories in Belgium and the Netherlands got underway in 1840. Municipal gas companies arose, hence the city gas. Those gas works supplied the cities. Most households were connected to city gas. The food was cooked on a gas burner and then cooked on a kerosene stove. That was cheaper. Consumption was monitored with gas meters. By inserting a coin, the gas started to flow for a while. The lighting in the house was usually electric, but kerosene lamps were still used. The stove was fired with coal / anthracite, stored in the cellar, or shed. Fetching it was a job for the children, who had a kind of bucket, the coal shovel at their disposal. Outside the cities, people had to rely on oil, coal, or peat.
The Groningen gas field that was tapped in 1959 turned out to be one of the largest in the world. Gas became an important Dutch export product, but also nationally. Almost all the country was quickly connected: within ten years more than 3/4 of Dutch households used natural gas. The municipality of Hilversum, the Netherlands, kicked off the lead in 1963.
Belgium, which already had an extensive piping system because of the city gas, concluded a gas contract with the Netherlands in 1965. The Dutch state made a lot of money with the gas. Only the Italians received a prize. Italy received extra cheap natural gas in the 1960s, at the insistence of NATO, because it would not turn to Russia during the Cold War.
Before the gas could be used at home, existing gas appliances had to be adapted. Surveyors came by to see which gas appliances could or could not be converted. This was done based on a list. For the housewife, the gas was a big improvement. Because of the higher calorific value, everything boiled faster. The oil or coal fireplace was kept but was eventually replaced by a gas stove. This put an end to the dragging of coal and ashes. The sales argument "clean" was presented to the tidy housewife of the time. The gas also brought the geyser. Hot water now came straight from the tap. And what about showers? The weekly wash in the cold tub could make way for the unprecedented shower frequency of today. It all got easier.
Between 1966 and 1971, Flanders switched to cheap and better quality Dutch natural gas. Just like in the Netherlands, the gas appliances had to be adjusted at home. The municipality of Vlieland, the Netherlands, closed the row in 1986 in the transitions. The gas plants were shut down one by one. The demolition took a long time. It turned out that these sites had become seriously polluted by gas production.
The end of the Slochteren gas bubble seems in sight, with the earthquakes in Groningen in 2009 as the end game. Yet the people of Groningen were proud of "their" gas at the time. A video was made on 50 years of natural gas.