Rhetorical strategies
Consider the power of OPPOSITION! (contrast; paradox; oxymoron; dialectic; sarcasm; verbal, situational, and dramatic irony...)
and, (by contrast) consider the power of COMPARISON! (simile, metaphor, analogy, symbol, metonymy, synechdoche, parallel...)
Pay attention to SYNTAX and SENTENCE LENGTH: How simple or complex, how long, short, or varied are the sentences? How does the author direct and focus the reader's attention?
Consider TONE: What attitude does the speaker/narrator/author seem to have toward his/her subject? How does s/he communicate that attitude?
Think about MEDIUM and CONTEXT and AUDIENCE: for whom is the author writing? on what occasion? why did s/he choose this particular mode of address, whether fiction, verse, essay, cartoon, commercial, speech; whether words, imagery, some combination?
Writing is a series of choices. To make an argument, we choose our words in order to be as effective as possible. We begin by thinking about purpose: are we trying to inform? convince? incite action? Next, we think about audience: how much prior knowledge should we assume? how committed might the reader be to another point of view?
During all phases of the writing process, then, we consider purpose and audience. How much research is necessary, and what kind? What modes of argument will be most effective for our audience? As we draft and revise, we try to take the point of view of our readers: how will they respond to our thought and approach?
The central idea of an argument, its thesis, might be either explicit or implicit, but in most cases a writer will clearly state a central claim and structure the argument so that every element of the essay strengthens it. Click here for an excellent discussion of how a thesis works
Rhetoricians discuss the three appeals: Logos, pathos, and ethos. At any given time, that is, our argument might be appealing to logic, emotion, or the writer's personal credibility. While it is possible to use these appeals unfairly, in ways that shut argument down (see this list of rhetorical fallacies), the best writing marshals its appeals in whatever way will promote deeper thought, greater engagement, more commitment to the truth of the central claim.
There are many modes of argument, and nearly all sustained pieces of writing mingle more than one. Some examples:
Narrative (anecdote): On the surface, a story seems to be a story. But we always tell stories with rhetorical purpose. We ritually read to children before bed... have you noticed how many of the stories end with the childlike protagonist sleeping peacefully? What does Steinbeck hope will be the result of Grapes of Wrath, his passionate novel about the injustices visited on displaced farmers during the depression? Narrative's natural appeal to pathos, the human tendency to empathize with the characters in the story, makes it a subtle, effective mode of argument. In addition, since narrative is so attractive to our curiosity (how will the story come out?), writers often use narrative to frame other modes.
Statement of Universal principal: A powerful way to assert that we're all on the same side, here. Since we all believe this... well... we agree! "We hold these truths to be self-evident..."
Description: Especially for informative essays, description provides a wealth of information from which to appeal to logos.
Example: The most common form of argument, especially for high school writers, is a discussion of examples which illustrate the central claim. An extreme form is catalog, an overwhelming list of examples.
Comparison/contrast: This mode puts two or more subjects side by side. It may be arranged by focusing on one subject at a time, or focusing on one aspect at a time of both subjects. The thesis may be drawing a subtle distinction, but in most cases the essays asserts, at least implicitly, the superiority of one of its subjects.
Classification/Division: Complicated arguments often benefit from being broken down into pieces. Each aspect of the topic receives a separate section: if each piece is true, according to this mode of argumentation, then the whole must be true as well.
Addressing counter-argument: Especially in the example mode, good writers anticipate the reservations or counter-examples their audience might offer, and speak directly to them. "Although some might say that...."
Process analysis: Lab reports and how-to guides use process analysis to show how things work, and then base their conclusions on the observations they have described.
Causal analysis: Causal analyses work in the opposite direction: given a result, they consider how and why such results came to be.
Irony: An ironist says the opposite of what s/he means in order to provoke readers toward a specific conclusion. Swift's "A Modest Proposal" is the classic example; see also anything in "The Onion." The thesis in ironic essays is seldom explicit.
Analogy: This mode compares one subject or situation to another, often via simile or metaphor or allusion. "It is as if..."
Thought experiment: What would happen if a writer described a hypothetical situation that is plausible, and asked the audience to consider the consequences? Would that strengthen an argument? The more carefully described the situation, the more effective the thought experiment mode.
Hyperbole: Exaggeration in service to a point.
Call to Action: The test of an argument is whether it motivates a change in your audience's behavior. A writer may directly state what change in behavior s/he is advocating. Do this! Save the world (or at least the brindled gnu)!
