Latín II

LESSON XXXVII

CONJUGATION OF POSSUM · THE INFINITIVE USED AS IN ENGLISH

212. Learn the principal parts of possum, I am able, I can, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. § 495.)

a. Possum, I can, is a compound of potis, able, and sum, I am.

213. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative. The infinitive (cf. § 173) is a verbal noun. Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb. The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English.

1. In English certain verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in the objective case and an infinitive, as, he commanded the men to flee. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, some verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, Is virôs fugere iussit, he commanded the men to flee.

214. Rule. Subject of the Infinitive. The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative.

215. The Complementary Infinitive. In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls. This is called the complementary infinitive, as the predicate is not complete without the added infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, verbs of incomplete predication are completed by the infinitive. Among such verbs are possum, I am able, I can; properô, mâtûrô, I hasten; temptô, I attempt; as

Rômânî Gallôs superâre possunt, the Romans are able to (or can) conquer the Gauls

Bellum gerere mâtûrant, they hasten to wage war

a. A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb.

Malî puerî esse bonî nôn possunt, bad boys are not able to (or cannot) be good.

Observe that bonî agrees with puerî.

216. The Infinitive used as a Noun. In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative. For example, To conquer (= conquering) is pleasing; To see (= seeing) is to believe (= believing). The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with est, as

Superâre est grâtum, to conquer is pleasing

Vidêre est crêdere, to see is to believe

a. In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject, which must then be in the accusative case, as

Galbam superâre inimîcôs est grâtum multîs,

for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many

b. An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the sentence superâre est grâtum, the predicate adjective grâtum is in the neuter nominative singular to agree with superâre the subject.

217. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Magister lûdî lîberôs cum dîligentiâ labôrâre iussit. 2. Egêre cibô et vinô est virîs molestum. 3. Virî armâtî vetuêrunt Gallôs castra ibi pônere. 4. Estne lêgâtus in castellô an in mûrô? Is est prô portâ. 5. Ubi nostrî¹ fugere incêpêrunt, lêgâtus ab vestrîs¹ captus est. 6. Gallî castellum ibi oppugnâverant ubi praesidium erat înfîrmum. 7. Aliî pugnâre temptâbant, aliî portâs petêbant. 8. Fêminae prô domiciliîs sedêbant neque resistere validîs Gallîs poterant. 9. Bellum est saevum, nec înfîrmîs nec miserîs favet. 10. Sed virî arma postulâbant et studêbant Gallôs dê mûrîs agere. 11. Id castellum ab Gallîs occupârî Rômânîs nôn grâtum erit. 12. Gallî ubi â Rômânîs victî sunt, esse lîberî² cessâvêrunt. 13. Diû sine aquâ vîvere nôn potestis.

1. Supply men. nostri, vestrî, and suî are often used as nouns in this way.

2. Not children. The Romans used lîberî either as an adjective, meaning free, or as a noun, meaning the free, thereby signifying their free-born children. The word was never applied to children of slaves.

II. 1. The girl began daily to carry water from the river to the gates. 2. The Gauls had pitched their camp in a place suitable for a battle. 3. For a long time they tried in vain to seize the redoubt. 4. Neither did they cease to hurl weapons against³ the walls. 5. But they were not able to (could not) take the town.

3. in with the accusative.

218. The Faithless Tarpe´ia

Sabînî ôlim cum Rômânîs bellum gerêbant et multâs victôriâs reportâverant. Iam agrôs proximôs mûrîs vâstâbant, iam oppidô adpropinquâbant. Rômânî autem in Capitôlium fûgerant et longê perîculô aberant. Mûrîs validîs et saxîs altîs crêdêbant. Frûstrâ Sabînî têla iaciêbant, frûstrâ portâs dûrâs petêbant; castellum occupâre nôn poterant. Deinde novum cônsilium cêpêrunt.⁴

Tarpêia erat puella Rômâna pulchra et superba. Cotîdiê aquam côpiîs Rômânîs in Capitôlium portâbat. Eî⁵ nôn nocêbant Sabînî, quod ea sine armîs erat neque Sabînî bellum cum fêminîs lîberîsque gerêbant. Tarpêia autem maximê amâbat ôrnâmenta aurî. Cotîdiê Sabînôrum ôrnâmenta vidêbat et mox ea dêsîderâre incipiêbat. Eî ûnus ex⁶ Sabînîs dîxit, "Dûc côpiâs Sabînâs intrâ portâs, Tarpêia, et maxima erunt praemia tua."

4. cônsilium capere, to make a plan. Why is the perfect tense used here and the imperfect in the preceding sentences? Explain the use of tenses in the next paragraph.

5. Dative with nocêbant. (Cf. § 154.)

6. ex, out of, i.e. from the nuumber of; best translated of.

[Illustration: Tarpeia opens the gate for the soldiers

Caption: TARPEIA PUELLA PERFIDA]

LESSON XXXVIII

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

219. Sentences are simple, compound, or complex.

a. A simple sentence is a sentence containing but one statement, that is, one subject and one predicate: The Romans approached the town.

b. A compound sentence is a sentence containing two or more independent statements: The Romans approached the town | and | the enemy fled.

Note. An independent statement is one that can stand alone; it does not depend upon another statement.

c. A complex sentence is a sentence containing one independent statement and one or more dependent statements: When the Romans approached the town | the enemy fled.

Note. A dependent or subordinate statement is one that depends on or qualifies another statement; thus the enemy fled is independent, and when the Romans approached the town is dependent or subordinate.

d. The separate statements in a compound or complex sentence are called clauses. In a complex sentence the independent statement is called the main clause and the dependent statement the subordinate clause.

220. Examine the complex sentence

The Romans killed the men who were taken

Here are two clauses:

a. The main clause, The Romans killed the men

b. The subordinate clause, who were taken

The word who is a pronoun, for it takes the place of the noun men. It also connects the subordinate clause who were taken with the noun men. Hence the clause is an adjective clause. A pronoun that connects an adjective clause with a substantive is called a relative pronoun, and the substantive for which the relative pronoun stands is called its antecedent. The relative pronouns in English are who, whose, whom, which, what, that.

221. The relative pronoun in Latin is quî, quae, quod, and it is declined as follows:

1. Review the declension of is, § 114, and note the similarity in the endings. The forms quî, quae, and quibus are the only forms showing new endings.

Note. The genitive cuius and the dative cui are pronounced c[oo]i´y[oo]s (two syllables) and c[oo]i (one syllable).

222. The Relative Pronoun is translated as follows:¹

1. This table of meanings need not be memorized. It is inserted for reference when translating.

a. We see from the table above that quî, when it refers to a person, is translated by some form of who or by that; and that when it refers to anything else it is translated by which, what, or that.

223. Note the following sentences:

The Romans killed the men who were taken

The Romans killed the woman who was taken

Rômânî interfêcêrunt virôs quî captî sunt

Rômânî interfêcêrunt fêminam quae capta est

In the first sentence who (quî) refers to the antecedent men (virôs), and is masculine plural. In the second, who (quae) refers to woman (fêminam), andfeminine singular. From this we learn that the relative must agree with its antecedent in gender and number. In neither of the sentences are the antecedents and relatives in the same case. Virôs and fêminam are accusatives, and quî and quae are nominatives, being the subjects of the subordinate clauses. Hence

224. Rule. Agreement of the Relative. A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause.

225. Interrogative Pronouns. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that asks a question. In English the interrogatives are who? which? what? In Latin they are quis? quid? (pronoun) and quî? quae? quod? (adjective).

226. Examine the sentences

a. Who is the man? Quis est vir?

b. What man is leading them? Quî vir eôs dûcit?

In a, who is an interrogative pronoun. In b, what is an interrogative adjective. Observe that in Latin quis, quid is the pronoun and quî, quae, quod is theadjective.

227. 1. The interrogative adjective quî, quae, quod is declined just like the relative pronoun. (See § 221.)

2. The interrogative pronoun quis, quid is declined like quî, quae, quod in the plural. In the singular it is declined as follows:

Note. Observe that the masculine and feminine are alike and that all the forms are like the corresponding forms of the relative, excepting quis and quid.

228. EXERCISES

I. 1. Quis est aeger? Servus quem amô est aeger. 2. Cuius scûtum habês? Scûtum habeô quod lêgâtus ad castellum mîsit. 3. Cui lêgâtus suum scûtum dabit? Fîliô meô scûtum dabit. 4. Ubi Germânî antîquî vîvêbant? In terrâ quae est proxima Rhênô Germânî vîvêbant. 5. Quibuscum² Germânî bellum gerêbant? Cum Rômânîs, qui eôs superâre studêbant, Germânî bellum gerêbant. 6. Quî virî castra pônunt? Iî sunt virî quôrum armîs Germânî victî sunt. 7. Quibus têlîs côpiae nostrae eguêrunt? Gladiîs et telîs nostrae côpiae eguêrunt. 8. Â quibus porta sinistra tenêbâtur? Â sociîs porta sinistra tenêbâtur. 9. Quae prôvinciae â Rômânîs occupâtae sunt? Multae prôvinciae â Rômânîs occupâtae sunt. 10. Quibus virîs deî favêbunt? Bonîs virîs deî favêbunt.

2. cum is added to the ablative of relative, interrogative, and personal pronouns instead of being placed before them.

[Illustration: warriors coming home to Gaul

Caption: GERMANI ANTIQUI]

II. 1. What victory will you announce? 2. I will announce to the people the victory which the sailors have won. 3. The men who were pitching camp were eager for battle. 4. Nevertheless they were soon conquered by the troops which Sextus had sent. 5. They could not resist our forces, but fled from that place without delay.

229. The Faithless Tarpeia (Concluded)3

Tarpêia, commôta ôrnamentîs Sabînôrum pulchrîs, diû resistere nôn potuit et respondit: "Date mihi⁴ ôrnâmenta quae in sinistrîs bracchîs geritis, et celeriter côpiâs vestrâs in Capitôlium dûcam." Nec Sabînî recûsâvêrunt, sed per dûrâs magnâsque castellî portâs properâvêrunt quô⁵ Tarpêia dûxit et mox intrâ validôs et altôs mûrôs stâbant. Tum sine morâ in⁶ Tarpêiam scûta graviter iêcêrunt; nam scûta quoque in sinistrîs bracchiîs gerêbant. Ita perfida puella Tarpêia interfecta est; ita Sabînî Capitôlium occupâvêrunt.

3. Explain the use of the tenses in this selection.

4. to me.

5. quô = whither, to the place where. Here quo is the relative adverb. We have had it used before as the interrogative adverb, whither? to what place?

6. upon.

LESSON XXXIX

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS

230. Bases and Stems. In learning the first and second declensions we saw that the different cases were formed by adding the case terminations to the part of the word that did not change, which we called the base. If to the base we add -â in the first declension, and -o in the second, we get what is called thestem. Thus porta has the base port- and the stem portâ-; servus has the base serv- and the stem servo-.

These stem vowels, -â- and -o-, play so important a part in the formation of the case terminations that these declensions are named from them respectively the Â- and O-Declensions.

231. Nouns of the Third Declension. The third declension is called the Consonant or I-Declension, and its nouns are classified according to the way thestem ends. If the last letter of the stem is a consonant, the word is said to have a consonant stem; if the stem ends in -i-, the word is said to have an i-stem.In consonant stems the stem is the same as the base. In i-stems the stem is formed by adding -i- to the base. The presence of the i makes a difference in certain of the cases, so the distinction is a very important one.

232. Consonant stems are divided into two classes:

I. Stems that add -s to the base to form the nominative singular.

II. Stems that add no termination in the nominative singular.

CLASS I

233. Stems that add -s to the base in the nominative singular are either masculine or feminine and are declined as follows:

1. The base or stem is found by dropping -is in the genitive singular.

2. Most nouns of two syllables, like prînceps (prîncip-), mîles (mîlit-), iûdex (iûdic-), have i in the base, but e in the nominative.

a. lapis is an exception to this rule.

3. Observe the consonant changes of the base or stem in the nominative:

a. A final -t or -d is dropped before -s; thus mîles for mîlets, lapis for lapids, virtûs for virtûts.

b. A final -c or -g unites with -s and forms -x; thus iûdec + s = iûdex, rêg + s = rêx.

4. Review § 74 and apply the rules to this declension.

In like manner decline dux, ducis, m., leader; eques, equitis, m., horseman; pedes, peditis, m., foot soldier; pês, pedis, m.,foot.

234. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Neque peditês neque equitês occupâre castellum Rômânum poterant. 2. Summâ virtûte mûrôs altôs cotîdiê oppugnâbant. 3. Pedes mîlitum lapidibus quî dê mûrô iaciêbantur saepe vulnerâbantur. 4. Quod novum cônsilium dux cêpit? 5. Is perfidam puellam pulchrîs ôrnâmentîs temptâvit. 6. Quid puella fêcit? 7. Puella commôta aurô mîlitês per portâs dûxit. 8. Tamen praemia quae summô studiô petîverat nôn reportâvit. 9. Apud Rômânôs antîquôs Tarpêia nôn est laudâta.

II. 1. What ship is that which I see? That (illud) ship is the Victory. It is sailing now with a favorable wind and will soon approach Italy. 2. The judges commanded the savages to be seized and to be killed. 3. The chiefs of the savages suddenly began to flee, but were quickly captured by the horsemen. 4. The king led the foot soldiers to the wall from which the townsmen were hurling stones with the greatest zeal.

[Illustration: ship with oars

Caption: NAVIGIUM]

LESSON XL

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (Continued)

CLASS II

235. Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are declined in the other cases exactly like those that add -s. They may be masculine, feminine, or neuter.

236. PARADIGMS

1. With the exception of the nominative, the terminations are exactly the same as in Class I, and the base or stem is found in the same way.

2. Masculines and feminines with bases or stems in -in- and -ôn- drop -n- and end in -ô in the nominative, as legiô (base or stem legiôn-), ôrdô (base or stem ôrdin-).

3. Bases or stems in -tr- have -ter in the nominative, as pater (base or stem patr-).

4. Note how the genitive singular gives the clue to the whole declension. Always learn this with the nominative.

237. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Audîsne tubâs, Mârce? Nôn sôlum tubâs audiô sed etiam ôrdinês militum et carrôs impedîmentôrum plênôs vidêre possum. 2. Quâs legiônês vidêmus? Eae legiônês nûper ex Galliâ vênêrunt. 3. Quid ibi fêcêrunt? Studêbantne pugnâre an sine virtûte erant? 4. Multa proelia fêcêrunt¹ et magnâs victôriâs et multôs captîvôs reportâvêrunt. 5. Quis est imperâtor eârum legiônum? Caesar, summus Rômânôrum imperâtor. 6. Quis est eques quî pulchram corônam gerit? Is eques est frâter meus. Eî corôna â cônsule data est quia summâ virtûte pugnâverat et â barbarîs patriam servâverat.

II. 1. Who has seen my father to-day? 2. I saw him just now (nûper). He was hastening to your dwelling with your mother and sister. 3. When men are far from the fatherland and lack food, they cannot be restrained² from wrong³. 4. The safety of the soldiers is dear to Cæsar, the general. 5. The chiefs were eager to storm a town full of grain which was held by the consul. 6. The king forbade the baggage of the captives to be destroyed.

1. proelium facere = to fight a battle.

2. contineô. Cf. § 180.

3. Abl. iniûriâ.

LESSON XLI

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (Concluded)

238. Neuter consonant stems add no termination in the nominative and are declined as follows:

1. Review § 74 and apply the rules to this declension.

2. Bases or stems in -in- have -e- instead of -i- in the nominative, as flûmen, base or stem flûmin-.

3. Most bases or stems in -er- and -or- have -us in the nominative, as opus, base or stem oper-; tempus, base or stem tempor-.

239. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. 1. Barbarî ubi Rômam cêpêrunt, maxima rêgum opera dêlêvêrunt. 2. Rômânî multâs calamitâtês â barbarîs accêpêrunt. 3. Ubi erat summus terror apud oppidânôs, animî dubiî eôrum ab ôrâtôre clarô cônfîrmâti sunt. 4. Rôma est in rîpîs fiûminis magnî. 5. Ubi Caesar imperâtor mîlitês suôs arma capere iussit, iî â proeliô continêrî nôn potuêrunt. 6. Ubi proelium factum est, imperâtor reperîrî nôn potuit. 7. Imperâtor sagittâ in capite vulnerâtus erat et stâre nôn poterat. 8. Eum magnô labôre pedes ex proeliô portâvit. 9. Is bracchiîs suîs imperâtôrem tenuit et eum ex perîculîs summîs servâvit. 10. Virtûte suâ bonus mîles ab imperâtôre corônam accêpit.

II. 1. The consul placed a crown on the head of the victor. 2. Before the gates he was received by the townsmen. 3. A famous orator praised him and said, "By your labors you have saved the fatherland from disaster." 4. The words of the orator were pleasing to the victor. 5. To save the fatherland was a great task.

[Illustration: garland with text "civis observatos"

Caption: CORONA]

LESSON XLII

REVIEW LESSON

240. Review the paradigms in §§ 233, 236, 238; and decline all nouns of the third declension in this selection.

Terror Cimbricus¹

Ôlim Cimbrî et Teutonês, populî Germâniae, cum fêminîs lîberîsque Italiae adpropinquâverant et côpiâs Rômânâs maximô proeliô vîcerant. Ubi fuga legiônum nûntiâta est, summus erat terror tôtîus Rômae, et Rômânî, graviter commôtî, sacra crêbra deîs faciêbant et salûtem petêbant.

Tum Mânlius ôrâtor animôs populî ita cônfîrmâvit:—"Magnam calamitâtem accêpimus. Oppida nostra â Cimbrîs Teutonibusque capiuntur, agricolae interficiuntur, agrî vâstantur, côpiae barbarôrum Rômae adpropinquant. Itaque, nisi novîs animîs proelium novum faciêmus et Germânôs ex patriâ nostrâ sine morâ agêmus, erit nûlla salûs fêminîs nostrîs lîberîsque. Servâte lîberôs! Servâte patriam! Anteâ superâtî sumus quia imperâtôrês nostrî fuêrunt înfîrmî. Nunc Marius, clârus imperâtor, quî iam multâs aliâs victôriâs reportâvit, legiônês dûcet et animôs nostrôs terrôre Cimbricô lîberâre mâtûrâbit."

Marius tum in Âfricâ bellum gerêbat. Sine morâ ex Âfricâ in Italiam vocâtus est. Côpiâs novâs nôn sôlum tôtî Italiae sed etiam prôvinciîs sociôrum imperâvit.² Disciplînâ autem dûrâ labôribusque perpetuîs mîlitês exercuit. Tum cum peditibus equitibusque, quî iam proeliô studêbant, ad Germânôrum castra celeriter properâvit. Diû et âcriter pugnâtum est.³ Dênique barbarî fûgêrunt et multî in fugâ ab equitibus sunt interfectî. Marius pater patriae vocâtus est.

1. About the year 100 B.C. the Romans were greatly alarmed by an invasion of barbarians from the north known as Cimbri and Teutons. They were traveling with wives and children, and had an army of 300,000 fighting men. Several Roman armies met defeat, and the city was in a panic. Then the Senate called upon Marius, their greatest general, to save the country. First he defeated the Teutons in Gaul. Next, returning to Italy, he met the Cimbri. A terrible battle ensued, in which the Cimbri were utterly destroyed; but the terror Cimbricus continued to haunt the Romans for many a year thereafter.

2. He made a levy (of troops) upon, imperâvit with the acc. and the dat.

3. Cf. § 200. II. 2.

LESSON XLIII

THE THIRD DECLENSION · I-STEMS

241. To decline a noun of the third declension correctly we must know whether or not it is an i-stem. Nouns with i-stems are

1. Masculines and feminines:

a. Nouns in -ês and -îs with the same number of syllables in the genitive as in the nominative. Thus caedês, caedis, is an i-stem, but mîles, mîlitis, is a consonant stem.

b. Nouns in -ns and -rs.

c. Nouns of one syllable in -s or -x preceded by a consonant.

2. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar.

242. The declension of i-stems is nearly the same as that of consonant stems. Note the following differences:

a. Masculines and feminities have -ium in the genitive plural and -îs or -ês in the accusative plural.

b. Neuters have -î in the ablative singular, and an -i- in every form of the plural.

243. Masculine and Feminine I-Stems. Masculine and feminine i-stems are declined as follows:

1. Observe that the vowel before -ns is long, but that it is shortened before -nt. Cf. § 12. 2, 3.

1. avis, cîvis, fînis, ignis, nâvis have the ablative singular in -î or -e.

2. turris has accusative turrim and ablative turrî or turre.

244. Neuter I-Stems. Neuter i-stems are declined as follows:

1. Review § 74 and see how it applies to this declension.

2. The final -i- of the stem is usually dropped in the nominative. If not dropped, it is changed to -e.

3. A long vowel is shortened before final -l or -r. (Cf. § 12. 2.)

245. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. 1. Quam urbem vidêmus? Urbs quam vidêtis est Rôma. 2. Cîvês Rômânî urbem suam turribus altîs et mûrîs longîs mûnîverant. 3. Ventî nâvîs longâs prohibêbant fînibus hostium adpropinquâre. 4. Imperâtor a clientibus suîs calcâria aurî et alia însignia accêpit. 5. Mîlitês Rômânî cum hostibus bella saeva gessêrunt et eôs caede magnâ superâvêrunt. 6. Alia animâlia terram, alia mare amant. 7. Nâvês longae quae auxilium ad imperâtôrem portâbant ignî ab hostibus dêlêtae sunt. 8. In eô marî avis multâs vîdimus quae longê â terrâ volâverant. 9. Nônne vîdistis nâvîs longâs hostium et ignîs quibus urbs nostra vâstâbâtur? Certê, sed nec caedem cîvium nec fugam clientium vîdimus. 10. Avês et alia animâlia, ubi ignem vîdêrunt, salûtem fugâ petere celeriter incêpêrunt. 11. Num. iûdex in peditum ôrdinibus stâbat? Minimê, iûdex erat apud equitês et equus eius însigne pulchrum gerêbat.

[Illustration: longboats with oars and sails

Caption: NAVES LONGAE]

II. 1. Because of the lack of grain the animals of the village were not able to live. 2. When the general² heard the rumor, he quickly sent a horseman to the village. 3. The horseman had a beautiful horse and wore spurs of gold. 4. He said to the citizens, "Send your retainers with horses and wagons to our camp, and you will receive an abundance of grain." 5. With happy hearts they hastened to obey his words.³

2. Place first.

3. Not the accusative. Why?

LESSON XLIV

IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION

246. PARADIGMS

{Transcriber's Note:

The "Stems" are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied from the inflectional table in the Appendix.}

247. There are no rules for gender in the third declension that do not present numerous exceptions.¹ The following rules, however, are of great service, and should be thoroughly mastered:

1. Masculine are nouns in -or, -ôs, -er, -es (gen. -itis).

a. arbor, tree, is feminine; and iter, march, is neuter.

2. Feminine are nouns in -ô, -is, -x, and in -s preceded by a consonant or by any long vowel but ô.

a. Masculine are collis (hill), lapis, mênsis (month), ôrdô, pês, and nouns in -nis and -guis—as ignis, sanguis (blood)—and the four monosyllables

dêns, a tooth

môns, a mountain

pôns, a bridge

fôns, a fountain

3. Neuters are nouns in -e, -al, -ar, -n, -ur, -us, and caput.

1. Review § 60. Words denoting males are, of course, masculine, and those denoting females, feminine.

248. Give the gender of the following nouns and the rule by which it is determined:

249. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. The First Bridge over the Rhine. Salûs sociôrum erat semper câra Rômânîs. Ôlim Gallî, amîcî Rômânôrum, multâs iniûriâs ab Germânîs quî trâns flûmen Rhênum vivêbant accêperant. Ubi lêgâtî ab iîs ad Caesarem imperâtôrem Rômânum vênêrunt et auxilium postulâvêrunt, Rômânî magnîs itineribus ad hostium fînîs properâvêrunt. Mox ad rîpâs magnî flûminis vênêrunt. Imperâtor studêbat côpiâs suâs trâns fluvium dûcere, sed nûllâ viâ² poterat. Nûllâs nâvîs habêbat. Alta erat aqua. Imperâtor autem, vir clârus, numquam adversâ fortûnâ commôtus, novum cônsilium cêpit. Iussit suôs³ in⁴ lâtô flûmine facere pontem. Numquam anteâ pôns in Rhênô vîsus erat. Hostês ubi pontem quem Rômânî fêcerant vîdêrunt, summô terrôre commôtî, sine morâ fugam parâre incêpêrunt.

II. 1. The enemy had taken (possession of) the top of the mountain. 2. There were many trees on the opposite hills. 3. We pitched our camp near (ad) a beautiful spring. 4. A march through the enemies' country is never without danger. 5. The time of the month was suitable for the march. 6. The teeth of the monster were long. 7. When the foot soldiers⁴ saw the blood of the captives, they began to assail the fortifications with the greatest violence.⁵

2. Abl. of manner.

3. suôs, used as a noun, his men.

4. We say build a bridge over; the Romans, make a bridge on.

5. Place first.

Fifth Review, Lessons XXXVII-XLIV, §§ 517-520

LESSON XLV

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · I-STEMS

250. Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions (like bonus, aeger, or lîber), or they are of the third declension.

251. Nearly all adjectives of the third declension have i-stems, and they are declined almost like nouns with i-stems.

252. Adjectives learned thus far have had a different form in the nominative for each gender, as, bonus, m.; bona, f.; bonum, n. Such an adjective is called an adjective of three endings. Adjectives of the third declension are of the following classes:

253. Adjectives of the third declension in -er have three endings; those in -is have two endings; the others have one ending.

CLASS I

254. Adjectives of Three Endings are declined as follows:

CLASS II

255. Adjectives of Two Endings are declined as follows:

1. omnis is usually translated every in the singular and all in the plural.

CLASS III

256. Adjectives of One Ending are declined as follows:

1. All i-stem adjectives have -î in the ablative singular.

2. Observe that the several cases of adjectives of one ending have the same form for all genders excepting in the accusative singular and in the nominative and accusative plural.

3. Decline vir âcer, legiô âcris, animal âcre, ager omnis, scûtum omne, proelium pâr.

257. There are a few adjectives of one ending that have consonant stems. They are declined exactly like nouns with consonant stems.

258. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. The Romans invade the Enemy's Country. Ôlim peditês Rômânî cum equitibus vêlôcibus in hostium urbem iter faciêbant. Ubi nôn longê âfuêrunt, rapuêrunt agricolam, quî eîs viam brevem et facilem dêmônstrâvit. Iam Rômânî moenia alta, turrîs validâs aliaque opera urbis vidêre poterant. In moenibus stâbant multî prîncipês. Prîncipês ubi vîdêrunt Rômânôs, iussêrunt cîvîs lapidês aliaque têla dê mûrîs iacere. Tum mîlitês fortês continêrî â proeliô nôn poterant et âcer imperâtor signum tubâ darî iussit. Summâ vî omnês mâtûrâvêrunt. Imperâtor Sextô lêgâtô impedîmenta omnia mandâvit. Sextus impedîmenta in summô colle conlocâvit. Grave et âcre erat proelium, sed hostês nôn parês Rômânîs erant. Aliî interfectî, aliî captî sunt. Apud captîvôs erant mâter sororque rêgis. Paucî Rômânôrum ab hostibus vulnerâtî sunt. Secundum proelium Rômânîs erat grâtum. Fortûna fortibus semper favet.

II. 1. Some months are short, others are long. 2. To seize the top of the mountain was difficult. 3. Among the hills of Italy are many beautiful springs. 4. The soldiers were sitting where the baggage had been placed because their feet were weary. 5. The city which the soldiers were eager to storm had been fortified by strong walls and high towers. 6. Did not the king intrust a heavy crown of gold and all his money to a faithless slave? Yes, but the slave had never before been faithless.

[Illustration: legionary eagle, SPQR

Caption: AQUILA LEGIONIS]

LESSON XLVI

THE FOURTH OR U-DECLENSION

259. Nouns of the fourth declension are either masculine or neuter.

260. Masculine nouns end in -us, neuters in -û. The genitive ends in -ûs.

a. Feminine by exception are domus, house; manus, hand; and a few others.

PARADIGMS

{Transcriber's Note:

The "Stems" are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied from the inflectional table in the Appendix.}

1. Observe that the base is found, as in other declensions, by dropping the ending of the genitive singular.

2. lacus, lake, has the ending -ubus in the dative and ablative plural; portus, harbor, has either -ubus or -ibus.

3. cornû is the only neuter that is in common use.

261. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. 1. Ante adventum Caesaris vêlôcês hostium equitês âcrem impetum in castra fêcêrunt. 2. Continêre exercitum â proeliô nôn facile erat. 3. Post adventum suum Caesar iussit legiônês ex castrîs dûcî. 4. Prô castrîs cum hostium equitâtû pugnâtum est. 5. Post tempus breve equitâtus trâns flûmen fûgit ubi castra hostium posita erant. 6. Tum victor imperâtor agrôs vâstâvit et vîcôs hostium cremâvit. 7. Castra autem nôn oppugnâvit quia mîlitês erant dêfessî et locus difficilis. 8. Hostês nôn cessâvêrunt iacere têla, quae paucîs nocuêrunt. 9. Post adversum proelium principês Gallôrum lêgâtôs ad Caesarem mittere studêbant, sed populô persuâdêre nôn poterant.

II. 1. Did you see the man-of-war on the lake? 2. I did not see it (fem.) on the lake, but I saw it in the harbor. 3. Because of the strong wind the sailor forbade his brother to sail. 4. Cæsar didn´t make an attack on the cavalry on the right wing, did he? 5. No, he made an attack on the left wing. 6. Who taught your swift horse to obey? 7. I trained my horse with my (own) hands, nor was the task difficult. 8. He is a beautiful animal and has great strength.

LESSON XLVII

EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE · THE DECLENSION OF DOMUS

262. We have become thoroughly familiar with expressions like the following:

Galba ad (or in) oppidum properat

Galba ab (dê or ex) oppidô properat

Galba in oppidô habitat

From these expressions we may deduce the following rules:

263. Rule. Accusative of the Place to. The place to which is expressed by ad or in with the accusative. This answers the question Whither?

264. Rule. Ablative of the Place from. The place from which is expressed by â or ab, dê, ê or ex, with the separative ablative. This answers the question Whence? (Cf. Rule, § 179.)

265. Rule. Ablative of the Place at or in. The place at or in which is expressed by the ablative with in. This answers the question Where?

a. The ablative denoting the place where is called the locative ablative (cf. locus, place).

266. Exceptions. Names of towns, small islands,¹ domus, home, rûs, country, and a few other words in common use omit the prepositions in expressions of place, as,

Galba Athênâs properat, Galba hastens to Athens

Galba Athênîs properat, Galba hastens from Athens

Galba Athênîs habitat, Galba lives at (or in) Athens

Galba domum properat, Galba hastens home

Galba rûs properat, Galba hastens to the country

Galba domô properat, Galba hastens from home

Galba rûre properat, Galba hastens from the country

Galba rûrî (less commonly rûre) habitat, Galba lives in the country

a. Names of countries, like Germânia, Italia, etc., do not come under these exceptions. With them prepositions must not be omitted.

1. Small islands are classed with towns because they generally have but one town, and the name of the town is the same as the name of the island.

267. The Locative Case. We saw above that the place-relation expressed by at or in is regularly covered by the locative ablative. However, Latin originally expressed this relation by a separate form known as the locative case. This case has been everywhere merged in the ablative excepting in the singular number of the first and second declensions. The form of the locative in these declensions is like the genitive singular, and its use is limited to names of towns and small islands, domî, at home, and a few other words.

268. Rule. Locative and Locative Ablative. To express the place in which with names of towns and small islands, if they are singular and of the first or second declension, use the locative; otherwise use the locative ablative without a preposition; as,

Galba Rômae habitat, Galba lives at Rome

Galba Corinthî habitat, Galba lives at Corinth

Galba domî habitat, Galba lives at home

Here Rômae, Corinthî, and domî are locatives, being singular and of the first and second declensions respectively. But in

Galba Athênîs habitat, Galba lives at Athens,

Galba Pompêiîs habitat, Galba lives at Pompeii

Athênîs and Pompêiîs are locative ablatives. These words can have no locative case, as the nominatives Athênae and Pompêiî areplural and there is no plural locative case form.

269. The word domus, home, house, has forms of both the second and the fourth declension. Learn its declension (§ 468).

270. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. 1. Corinthî omnia însignia aurî â ducibus victôribus rapta erant. 2. Caesar Genâvam exercitum magnîs itineribus dûxit. 3. Quem pontem hostês cremâverant? Pontem in Rhênô hostês cremâverant. 4. Pompêiîs multâs Rômânôrum domôs vidêre poteritis. 5. Rômâ cônsul equô vêlôcî rûs properâvit. 6. Domî cônsulis hominês multî sedêbant. 7. Imperâtor iusserat lêgâtum Athênâs cum multîs nâvibus longîs nâvigâre. 8. Ante moenia urbis sunt ôrdinês arborum altârum. 9. Propter arborês altâs nec lacum nec portum reperîre potuimus. 10. Proeliîs crêbrîs Caesar legiônês suâs quae erant in Galliâ exercêbat. 11. Cotîdiê in locô idoneô castra pônêbat et mûniêbat.

II. 1. Cæsar, the famous general, when he had departed from Rome, hastened to the Roman province on a swift horse.² 2. He had heard a rumor concerning the allies at Geneva. 3. After his arrival Cæsar called the soldiers together and commanded them to join battle. 4. The enemy hastened to retreat, some because³ they were afraid, others because³ of wounds. 5. Recently I was at Athens and saw the place where the judges used to sit.⁴6. Marcus and Sextus are my brothers; the one lives at Rome, the other in the country.

2. Latin says "by a swift horse." What construction?

3. Distinguish between the English conjunction because (quia or quod) and the preposition because of (propter).

4. used to sit, express by the imperfect.

[Illustration: Daedalus and Icarus

Caption: DAEDALUS ET ICARUS

271. Daed´alus and Ic´arus

Crêta est însula antîqua quae aquâ altâ magnî maris pulsâtur. Ibi ôlim Mînôs erat rêx. Ad eum vênit Daedalus quî ex Graeciâ patriâ fugiêbat. Eum Mînôs rêx benignîs verbîs accêpit et eî domicilium in Crêtâ dedit. ⁵Quô in locô Daedalus sine cûrâ vîvebat et rêgî multa et clâra opera faciêbat. Post tempus longum autem Daedalus patriam câram dêsîderâre incêpit. Domum properâre studêbat, sed rêgî persuâdêre nôn potuit et mare saevum fugam vetâbat.

5. And in this place; quô does not here introduce a subordinate relative clause, but establishes the connection with the preceding sentence. Such a relative is called a connecting relative, and is translated by and and a demonstrative or personal pronoun.

LESSON XLVIII

THE FIFTH OR Ê-DECLENSION · THE ABLATIVE OF TIME

272. Gender. Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except diês, day, and merîdiês, midday, which are usually masculine.

273. PARADIGMS

{Transcriber's Note:

The "Stems" are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied from the inflectional table in the Appendix.}

1. The vowel e which appears in every form is regularly long. It is shortened in the ending -eî after a consonant, as in r-eî; and before -m in the accusative singular, as in di-em. (Cf. § 12. 2.)

2. Only diês and rês are complete in the plural. Most other nouns of this declension lack the plural. Aciês, line of battle, and spês, hope, have the nominative and accusative plural.

274. The ablative relation (§ 50) which is expressed by the prepositions at, in, or on may refer not only to place, but also to time, as at noon, in summer, on the first day. The ablative which is used to express this relation is called the ablative of time.

275. Rule. The Ablative of Time. The time when or within which anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition.

a. Occasionally the preposition in is found. Compare the English Next day we started and On the next day we started.

276. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294.

I. Galba the Farmer. Galba agricola rûrî vîvit. Cotîdiê prîmâ lûce labôrâre incipit, nec ante noctem in studiô suô cessat. Merîdiê Iûlia fîlia eum ad cênam vocat. Nocte pedês dêfessôs domum vertit. Aestâte fîliî agricolae auxilium patrî dant. Hieme agricola eôs in lûdum mittit. Ibi magister pueris multâs fâbulâs dê rêbus gestîs Caesaris nârrat. Aestâte fîliî agricolae perpetuîs labôribus exercentur nec grave agrî opus est iîs molestum. Galba sine ûllâ cûrâ vivit nec rês adversâs timet.

II. 1. In that month there were many battles in Gaul. 2. The cavalry of the enemy made an attack upon Cæsar's line of battle. 3. In the first hour of the night the ship was overcome by the billows. 4. On the second day the savages were eager to come under Cæsar's protection. 5. The king had joined battle, moved by the hope of victory. 6. That year a fire destroyed many birds and other animals. 7. We saw blood on the wild beast's teeth.

277. Daed´alus and Ic´arus (Continued)

Tum Daedalus gravibus cûrîs commôtus fîliô suô Îcarô ita dixit: "Animus meus, Îcare, est plênus trîstitiae nec oculî lacrimîs egent. Discêdere ex Crêtâ, Athênâs properâre, maximê studeô; sed rêx recûsat audîre verba mea et omnem reditûs spem êripit. Sed numquam rêbus adversîs vincar. Terra et mare sunt inimîca, sed aliam fugae viam reperiam." Tum in artîs ignôtâs animum dîmittit et mîrum capit cônsilium. Nam pennâs in ôrdine pônit et vêrâs âlâs facit.

LESSON XLIX

PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED · PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

278. We have the same kinds of pronouns in Latin as in English. They are divided into the following eight classes:

1. Personal pronouns, which show the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of; as, ego, I; tû, you; is, he. (Cf. § 279. etc.)

2. Possessive pronouns, which denote possession; as, meus, tuus, suus, etc. (Cf. § 98.)

3. Reflexive pronouns, used in the predicate to refer back to the subject; as, he saw himself. (Cf. § 281.)

4. Intensive pronouns, used to emphasize a noun or pronoun; as, I myself saw it. (Cf. § 285.)

5. Demonstrative pronouns, which point out persons or things; as, is, this, that. (Cf. § 112.)

6. Relative pronouns, which connect a subordinate adjective clause with an antecedent; as, quî, who. (Cf. § 220.)

7. Interrogative pronouns, which ask a question; as, quis, who? (Cf. § 225.)

8. Indefinite pronouns, which point out indefinitely; as, some one, any one, some, certain ones, etc. (Cf. § 296.)

279. The demonstrative pronoun is, ea, id, as we learned in § 115, is regularly used as the personal pronoun of the third person (he, she, it, they, etc.).

280. The personal pronouns of the first person are ego, I; nôs, we; of the second person, tû, thou or you; vôs, ye or you. They are declined as follows:

1. The personal pronouns are not used in the nominative excepting for emphasis or contrast.

281. The Reflexive Pronouns. 1. The personal pronouns ego and tû may be used in the predicate as reflexives; as,

2. The reflexive pronoun of the third person (himself, herself, itself, themselves) has a special form, used only in these senses, and declined alike in the singular and plural.

a. The form sê is sometimes doubled, sêsê, for emphasis.

3. Give the Latin for

282. The preposition cum, when used with the ablative of ego, tû, or suî, is appended to the form, as, mêcum, with me; têcum, with you; nôbîscum, with us; etc.

283. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294.

I. 1. Mea mâter est câra mihi et tua mâter est câra tibi. 2. Vestrae litterae erant grâtae nôbis et nostrae litterae erant grâtae vôbîs. 3. Nûntius rêgis quî nôbîscum est nihil respondêbit. 4. Nûntiî pâcem amîcitiamque sibi et suîs sociîs postulâvêrunt. 5. Sî tû arma sûmês, ego rêgnum occupâbô. 6. Uter vestrum est cîvis Rômânus? Neuter nostrum. 7. Eô tempore multî supplicium dedêrunt quia rêgnum petierant. 8. Sûme supplicium, Caesar, dê hostibus patriae âcribus. 9. Prîmâ lûce aliî metû commôtî sêsê fugae mandâvêrunt; aliî autem magnâ virtûte impetum exercitûs nostrî sustinuêrunt. 10. Soror rêgis, ubi dê adversô proeliô audîvit, sêsê Pompêiîs interfêcit.

II. 1. Whom do you teach? I teach myself. 2. The soldier wounded himself with his sword. 3. The master praises us, but you he does not praise. 4. Therefore he will inflict punishment on you, but we shall not suffer punishment. 5. Who will march (i.e. make a march) with me to Rome? 6. I will march with you to the gates of the city. 7. Who will show us¹ the way? The gods will show you¹ the way.

1. Not accusative.

Daed´alus and Ic´arus (Concluded)

284. Puer Îcarus ûnâ² stâbat et mîrum patris opus vidêbat. Postquam manus ultima³ âlîs imposita est, Daedalus eâs temptâvit et similis avî in aurâs volâvit. Tum âlâs umerîs fîlî adligâvit et docuit eum volâre et dîxit, "Tê vetô, mî fîlî, adpropinquâre aut sôlî aut marî. Sî fluctibus adpropinquâveris,⁴ aqua âlîs tuîs nocêbit, et sî sôlî adpropinquâveris,⁴ ignis eâs cremâbit." Tum pater et filius iter difficile incipiunt. Âlâs movent et aurae sêsê committunt. Sed stultus puer verbîs patris nôn pâret. Sôlî adpropinquat. Âlae cremantur et Îcarus in mare dêcidit et vitam âmittit. Daedalus autem sine ûllô perîculô trâns fluctûs ad însulam Siciliam volâvit.

2. Adverb, see vocabulary.

3. manus ultima, the finishing touch. What literally?

4. Future perfect. Translate by the present.

LESSON L

THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN IPSE AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE ÎDEM

285. Ipse means -self (him-self, her-self, etc.) or is translated by even or very. It is used to emphasize a noun or pronoun, expressed or understood, with which it agrees like an adjective.

a. Ipse must be carefully distinguished from the reflexive suî. The latter is always used as a pronoun, while ipse is regularly adjective. Compare

Homô sê videt, the man sees himself (reflexive)

Homô ipse perîculum videt, the man himself (intensive) sees the danger

Homô ipsum perîculum videt, the man sees the danger itself (intensive)

286. Except for the one form ipse, the intensive pronoun is declined exactly like the nine irregular adjectives (cf. §§ 108, 109). Learn the declension (§ 481).

287. The demonstrative îdem, meaning the same, is a compound of is. It is declined as follows:

a. From forms like eundem (eum + -dem), eôrundem (eôrum + -dem), we learn the rule that m before d is changed to n.

b. The forms iîdem, iîsdem are often spelled and pronounced with one î.

288. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. 1. Ego et tû¹ in eâdem urbe vîvimus. 2. Iter ipsum nôn timêmus sed ferâs saevâs quae in silvâ dênsâ esse dîcuntur. 3. Ôlim nôs ipsî idem iter fêcimus. 4. Eô tempore multâs ferâs vîdimus. 5. Sed nôbîs nôn nocuêrunt. 6. Caesar ipse scûtum dê manibus mîlitis êripuit et in ipsam aciem properâvit. 7. Itaque mîlitês summâ virtûte têla in hostium corpora iêcêrunt. 8. Rômânî quoque gravia vulnera accêpêrunt. 9. Dênique hostês terga vertêrunt et ommîs in partîs²fûgêrunt. 10. Eâdem hôrâ litterae Rômam ab imperâtôre ipsô missae sunt. 11. Eôdem mênse captîvî quoque in Italiam missî sunt. 12. Sed multî propter vulnera iter difficile trâns montîs facere recûsâbant et Genâvae esse dîcêbantur.

1. Observe that in Latin we say I and you, not you and I.

2. Not parts, but directions.

II. 1. At Pompeii there is a wonderful mountain. 2. When I was in that place, I myself saw that mountain. 3. On the same day many cities were destroyed by fire and stones from that very mountain. 4. You have not heard the true story of that calamity, have you?3 5. On that day the very sun could not give light to men. 6. You yourself ought to tell (to) us that story.

3. Cf. § 210.

289. How Horatius held the Bridge⁴

Tarquinius Superbus, septimus et ultimus rêx Rômânôrum, ubi in exsilium ab îrâtîs Rômânîs êiectus est, â Porsenâ, rêge Etrûscôrum, auxilium petiit. Mox Porsena magnîs cum côpiîs Rômam vênit, et ipsa urbs summô in perîculô erat. Omnibus in partibus exercitus Rômânus victus erat. Iam rêx montem Iâniculum⁵ occupâverat. Numquam anteâ Rômânî tantô metû tenêbantur. Ex agrîs in urbem properabânt et summô studiô urbem ipsam mûniêbant.

4. The story of Horatius has been made familiar by Macaulay's well-known poem "Horatius" in his Lays of Ancient Rome. Read the poem in connection with this selection.

5. The Janiculum is a high hill across the Tiber from Rome.

LESSON LI

THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS HIC, ISTE, ILLE

290. We have already learned the declension of the demonstrative pronoun is and its use. (Cf. Lesson XVII.) That pronoun refers to persons or things either far or near, and makes no definite reference to place or time. If we wish to point out an object definitely in place or time, we must use hic, iste, orille. These demonstratives, like is, are used both as pronouns and as adjectives, and their relation to the speaker may be represented graphically thus:

hic iste ille SPEAKER ---------->-------------->----------------> _this_, _he_; _that_, _he_; _that_, _he_ (near); (remote); (more remote)

a. In dialogue hic refers to a person or thing near the speaker; iste, to a person or thing near the person addressed; ille, to a person or thing remote from both. These distinctions are illustrated in the model sentences, § 293, which should be carefully studied and imitated.

291. Hic is declined as follows:

a. Huius is pronounced h[oo]´y[oo]s, and huic is pronounced h[oo]ic (one syllable).

292. The demonstrative pronouns iste, ista, istud, and ille, illa, illud, except for the nominative and accusative singular neuter forms istud and illud, are declined exactly like ipse, ipsa, ipsum. (See § 481.)

293. MODEL SENTENCES

294. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. A German Chieftain addresses his Followers. Ille fortis Germânôrum dux suôs convocâvit et hôc modô animôs eôrum cônfirmâvit. "Vôs, quî in hîs fînibus vîvitis, in hunc locum convocâvî¹ quia mêcum dêbêtis istôs agrôs et istâs domôs ab iniûriîs Rômânôrum liberâre. Hoc nôbîs nôn difficile erit, quod illî hostês hâs silvâs dênsâs, ferâs saevâs quârum vestîgia vident, montês altôs timent. Sî fortês erimus, deî ipsî nôbîs viam salûtis dêmonstrâbunt. Ille sôl, istî oculî calamîtâtês nostrâs vîdêrunt.¹ Itaque nômen illîus reî pûblicae Rômânae nôn sôlum nôbis, sed etiam omnibus hominibus quî lîbertâtem amant, est invîsum. Ad arma vôs vocô. Exercête istam prîstinam virtûtem et vincêtis."

II. 1. Does that bird (of yours)2 sing? 2. This bird (of mine)2 sings both³ in summer and in winter and has a beautiful voice. 3. Those birds (yonder)2 in the country don´t sing in winter. 4. Snatch a spear from the hands of that soldier (near you)2 and come home with me. 5. With those very eyes (of yours)2 you will see the tracks of the hateful enemy who burned my dwelling and made an attack on my brother. 6. For (propter) these deeds (rês) we ought to inflict punishment on him without delay. 7. The enemies of the republic do not always suffer punishment.

1. The perfect definite. (Cf. § 190.)

2. English words in parentheses are not to be translated. They are inserted to show what demonstratives should be used. (Cf. § 290.)

3. both ... and, et ... et.

[Illustration: Horatius at the bridge

Caption: HORATIUS PONTEM DEFENDIT

295. How Horatius held the Bridge (Continued)

Altera urbis pars mûrîs, altera flûmine satis mûnîrî vidêbâtur. Sed erat pôns in flûmine quî hostibus iter paene dedit. Tum Horâtius Cocles, fortis vir, magnâ vôce dîxit, "Rescindite pontem, Rômânî! Brevî tempore Porsena in urbem côpiâs suâs trâdûcet." Iam hostês in ponte erant, sed Horâtius cum duôbus (cf. § 479) comitibus ad extrêmam pontis partem properâvit, et hi sôli aciem hostium sustinuêrunt. Tum vêrô cîvês Rômânî pontem â tergô rescindere incipiunt, et hostês frûstrâ Horâtium superâre temptant.

LESSON LII

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

296. The indefinite pronouns are used to refer to some person or some thing, without indicating which particular one is meant. The pronouns quis and quî, which we have learned in their interrogative and relative uses, may also be indefinite; and nearly all the other indefinite pronouns are compounds of quisor quî and declined almost like them. Review the declension of these words, §§ 221, 227.

297. Learn the declension and meaning of the following indefinites:

{Transcriber's Note:

In the original text, the combined forms (masculine/feminine) were printed in the "masculine" column.}

Note. The meanings of the neuters, something, etc., are easily inferred from the masculine and feminine.

a. In the masculine and neuter singular of the indefinites, quis-forms and quid-forms are mostly used as substantives, quî-forms and quod-forms as adjectives.

b. The indefinites quis and quî never stand first in a clause, and are rare excepting after sî, nisi, nê, num (as, sî quis, if any one; sî quid, if anything; nisi quis, unless some one). Generally aliquis and aliquî are used instead.

c. The forms qua and aliqua are both feminine nominative singular and neuter nominative plural of the indefinite adjectives quî and aliquî respectively. How do these differ from the corresponding forms of the relative quî?

d. Observe that quîdam (quî + -dam) is declined like quî, except that in the accusative singular and genitive plural m of quî becomes n (cf. § 287. a):quendam, quandam, quôrundam, quârundam; also that the neuter has quiddam (substantive) and quoddam (adjective) in the nominative and accusative singular. Quîdam is the least indefinite of the indefinite pronouns, and implies that you could name the person or thing referred to if you cared to do so.

e. Quisquam and quisque (substantive) are declined like quis.

f. Quisquam, any one (quicquam or quidquam, anything), is always used substantively and chiefly in negative sentences. The corresponding adjectiveany is ûllus, -a, -um (§ 108).

298. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. 1. Aliquis dê ponte in flûmen dêcidit sed sine ûllô perîculô servâtus est. 2. Est vêrô in vîtâ cuiusque hominis aliqua bona fortûna. 3. Nê mîlitum quidem¹quisquam in castrîs mânsit. 4. Sî quem meae domî vidês, iubê eum discêdere. 5. Sî quis pontem tenet, nê tantus quidem exercitus capere urbem potest. 6. Urbs nôn satis mûnîta erat et merîdiê rêx quîdam paene côpiâs suâs trâns pontem trâdûxerat. 7. Dênique mîles quîdam armâtus in fluctûs dêsiluit et incolumis ad alteram rîpam oculôs vertit. 8. Quisque illî fortî mîlitî aliquid dare dêbet. 9. Tanta vêrô virtûs Rômânus semper placuit. 10. Ôlim Corinthus erat urbs satis magna et paene par Rômae ipsî; nunc vêrô moenia dêcidêrunt et pauca vestîgia urbis illîus reperîrî possunt. 11. Quisque lîbertâtem amat, et aliquibus vêrô nômen rêgis est invîsum.

II. 1. If you see a certain Cornelius at Corinth, send him to me. 2. Almost all the soldiers who fell down into the waves were unharmed. 3. Not even at Pompeii did I see so great a fire. 4. I myself was eager to tell something to some one. 5. Each one was praising his own work. 6. Did you see some one in the country? I did not see any one. 7. Unless some one will remain on the bridge with Horatius, the commonwealth will be in the greatest danger.

1. Observe that quîdam and quidem are different words.

299. How Horatius held the Bridge (Concluded)

Mox, ubi parva pars pontis mânsit, Horâtius iussit comitês discêdere et sôlus mîrâ cônstantiâ impetum illius tôtius exercitûs sustinêbat. Dênique magnô fragôre pôns in flûmen dêcîdit. Tum vêrô Horâtius tergum vertit et armâtus in aquâs dêsiluit. In eum hostês multa têla iêcêrunt; incolumis autem per fiuctûs ad alteram rîpam trânâvit. Eî propter tantâs rês gestâs populus Rômânus nôn sôlum alia magna praemia dedit sed etiam statuam Horâti in locô pûblicô posuit.

Sixth Review, Lessons XLV-LII, §§ 521-523

LESSON LIII

REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

300. The quality denoted by an adjective may exist in either a higher or a lower degree, and this is expressed by a form of inflection called comparison. The mere presence of the quality is expressed by the positive degree, its presence in a higher or lower degree by the comparative, and in the highest or lowest of all by the superlative. In English the usual way of comparing an adjective is by using the suffix -er for the comparative and -est for the superlative; as, positive high, comparative higher, superlative highest. Less frequently we use the adverbs more and most; as, positive beautiful, comparative more beautiful, superlative most beautiful.

In Latin, as in English, adjectives are compared by adding suffixes or by using adverbs.

301. Adjectives are compared by using suffixes as follows:

a. The comparative is formed from the base of the positive by adding -ior masc. and fem., and -ius neut.; the superlative by adding -issimus, -issima, -issimum.

302. Less frequently adjectives are compared by using the adverbs magis, more; maximê, most; as, idôneus, suitable; magis idôneus, more suitable;maximê idôneus, most suitable.

303. Declension of the Comparative. Adjectives of the comparative degree are declined as follows:

a. Observe that the endings are those of the consonant stems of the third declension.

b. Compare longus, long; fortis, brave; recêns (base, recent-), recent; and decline the comparative of each.

304. Adjectives in -er form the comparative regularly, but the superlative is formed by adding -rimus, -a, -um to the nominative masculine of the positive; as,

a. In a similar manner compare miser, aeger, crêber.

305. The comparative is often translated by quite, too, or somewhat, and the superlative by very; as, altior, quite (too, somewhat) high; altissimus, very high.

306. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1. Quid explôrâtôrês quaerêbant? Explôrâtôrês tempus opportfûissimum itinerî quaerêbant. 2. Mediâ in silvâ ignîs quam crêberrimôs fêcimus, quod ferâs tam audâcis numquam anteâ vîderâmus. 3. Antîquîs temporibus Germânî erant fortiôrês quam Gallî. 4. Caesar erat clârior quam inimîcî¹ quî eum necâvêrunt. 5. Quisque scûtum ingêns et pîlum longius gerêbat. 6. Apud barbarôs Germânî erant audâcissimî et fortissimî. 7. Mêns hominum est celerior quam corpus. 8. Virî aliquârum terrârum sunt miserrimî. 9. Corpora Germânôrum erant ingentiôra quam Rômânôrum. 10. Âcerrimî Gallôrum prîncipês sine ûllâ morâ trâns flûmen quoddam equôs vêlôcissimôs trâdûxêrunt. 11. Aestâte diês sunt longiôrês quam hieme. 12. Imperâtor quîdam ab explôrâtôribus dê recentî adventû nâvium longârum quaesîvit.

II. 1. Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest. 2. Certain animals are swifter than the swiftest horse. 3. The Roman name was most hateful to the enemies of the commonwealth. 4. The Romans always inflicted the severest² punishment on faithless allies. 5. I was quite ill, and so I hastened from the city to the country. 6. Marcus had some friends dearer than Cæsar.³ 7. Did you not seek a more recent report concerning the battle? 8. Not even after a victory so opportune did he seek the general's friendship.

1. Why is this word used instead of hostês?

2. Use the superlative of gravis.

3. Accusative. In a comparison the noun after quam is in the same case as the one before it.

N.B. Beginning at this point, the selections for reading will be found near the end of the volume. (See p. 197.)

LESSON LIV

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES · THE ABLATIVE WITH COMPARATIVES WITHOUT QUAM

307. The following six adjectives in -lis form the comparative regularly; but the superlative is formed by adding -limus to the base of the positive. Learn the meanings and comparison.

308. From the knowledge gained in the preceding lesson we should translate the sentence Nothing is brighter than the sun

Nihil est clârius quam sôl

But the Romans, especially in negative sentences, often expressed the comparison in this way,

Nihil est clârius sôle

which, literally translated, is Nothing is brighter away from the sun; that is, starting from the sun as a standard, nothing is brighter. This relation is expressed by the separative ablative sôle. Hence the rule

309. Rule. Ablative with Comparatives. The comparative degree, if quam is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative.

310. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1. Nêmô mîlitês alacriôrês Rômânîs vîdit. 2. Statim imperâtor iussit nûntiôs quam celerrimôs litterâs Rômam portâre. 3. Multa flûmina sunt lêniôra Rhênô. 4. Apud Rômanôs quis erat clârior Caesare? 5. Nihil pulchrius urbe Rômâ vîdî. 6. Subitô multitûdo audacissima magnô clamôre proelium âcrius commîsit. 7. Num est equus tuus tardus? Nôn vêrô tardus, sed celerior aquilâ. 8. Ubi Romae fuî, nêmô erat mihi amicior Sextô. 9. Quaedam mulierês cibum mîlitibus dare cupîvêrunt. 10. Rêx vetuit cîvis ex urbe noctû discêdere. 11. Ille puer est gracilior hâc muliere. 12. Explôrâtor duâs (two) viâs, alteram facilem, alteram difficiliôrem, dêmônstrâvit.

II. 1. What city have you seen more beautiful than Rome? 2. The Gauls were not more eager than the Germans. 3. The eagle is not slower than the horse. 4. The spirited woman did not fear to make the journey by night. 5. The mind of the multitude was quite gentle and friendly. 6. But the king's mind was very different. 7. The king was not like (similar to) his noble father. 8. These hills are lower than the huge mountains of our territory.

Reading Selection

[Illustration: Roman weapons and armor

Caption: ARMA ROMANA]

LESSON LV

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (Continued)

311. Some adjectives in English have irregular comparison, as good, better, best; many, more, most. So Latin comparison presents some irregularities. Among the adjectives that are compared irregularly are

312. The following four adjectives have two superlatives. Unusual forms are placed in parentheses.

313. Plûs, more (plural more, many, several), is declined as follows:

a. In the singular plûs is used only as a neuter substantive.

314. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1. Reliquî hostês, quî â dextrô cornû proelium commîserant, dê superiôre locô fûgêrunt et sêsê in silvam maximam recêpêrunt. 2. In extrêmâ parte silvae castra hostium posita erant. 3. Plûrimî captîvî ab equitibus ad Caesarem ductî sunt. 4. Caesar vêrô iussit eôs in servitûtem trâdî. 5. Posterô diê magna multitûdô mulierum ab Rômânîs in valle îmâ reperta est. 6. Hae mulierês maximê perterritae adventû Caesaris sêsê occîdere studêbant. 7. Eae quoque plûrîs fâbulâs dê exercitûs Rômânî sceleribus audîverant. 8. Fâma illôrum mîlitum optima nôn erat. 9. In barbarôrum aedificiîs maior côpia frûmentî reperta est. 10. Nêmô crêbrîs proeliîs contendere sine aliquô perîculô potest.

II. 1. The remaining women fled from their dwellings and hid themselves. 2. They were terrified and did not wish to be captured and given over into slavery. 3. Nothing can be worse than slavery. 4. Slavery is worse than death. 5. In the Roman empire a great many were killed because they refused to be slaves. 6. To surrender the fatherland is the worst crime.

Reading Selection

LESSON LVI

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (Concluded) · ABLATIVE OF THE MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE

315. The following adjectives are irregular in the formation of the superlative and have no positive. Forms rarely used are in parentheses.

316. In the sentence Galba is a head taller than Sextus, the phrase a head taller expresses the measure of difference in height between Galba and Sextus. The Latin form of expression would be Galba is taller than Sextus by a head. This is clearly an ablative relation, and the construction is called theablative of the measure of difference.

317. Rule. Ablative of the Measure of Difference. With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference.

a. Especially common in this construction are the neuter ablatives

eô, by this, by that

hôc, by this

multô, by much

nihilô,¹ by nothing

paulô, by a little

1. nihil was originally nihilum and declined like pîlum. There is no plural.

318. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1. Barbarî proelium committere statuêrunt eô magis quod Rômânî înfîrmî esse vidêbantur. 2. Meum cônsilium est multô melius quam tuum quia multô facilius est. 3. Haec via est multô lâtior quam illa. 4. Barbarî erant nihilô tardiôrês quam Rômânî. 5. Tuus equus est paulô celerior quam meus. 6. Iî quî paulô fortiôrês erant prohibuêrunt reliquôs aditum relinquere. 7. Inter illâs cîvitâtês Germânia mîlitês habet optimôs. 8. Propior via quae per hanc vallem dûcit est inter portum et lacum. 9. Servî, quî agrôs citeriôrês incolêbant, priôrês dominôs relinquere nôn cupîvêrunt, quod eôs amâbant. 10. Ultimae Germâniae partês numquam in fidem Rômânôrum vênêrunt. 11. Nam trâns Rhênum aditus erat multô difficilior exercituî Rômânô.

II. 1. Another way much more difficult (more difficult by much) was left through hither Gaul. 2. In ancient times no state was stronger than the Roman empire. 3. The states of further Gaul did not wish to give hostages to Cæsar. 4. Slavery is no better (better by nothing) than death. 5. The best citizens are not loved by the worst. 6. The active enemy immediately withdrew into the nearest forest, for they were terrified by Cæsar's recent victories.

Reading Selection

LESSON LVII

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

319. Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. sweet, adv. sweetly). Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension.

320. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows:

a. The positive of the adverb is formed by adding -ê to the base of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way.

b. The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of the adjective.

321. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative. The positive is usually formed by adding -iter to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and -ter to the base of those of one ending;¹ as,

1. This is a good working rule, though there are some exceptions to it.

322. Case Forms as Adverbs. As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as,

323. Learn the following irregular comparisons:

324. Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them: laetus, superbus, molestus, amîcus, âcer, brevis, gravis,recêns.

325. Rule. Adverbs. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

326. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1. Nûlla rês melius gesta est quam proelium illud² ubi Marius multô minôre exercitû multô maiôrês côpiâs Germânôrum in fugam dedit. 2. Audâcter in Rômânôrum cohortîs hostês impetûs fêcêrunt 3. Marius autem omnês hôs fortissimê sustinuit. 4. Barbarî nihilô fortiôrês erant quam Rômânî. 5. Prîmô barbarî esse superiôrês vidêbantur, tum Rômânî âcrius contendêrunt. 6. Dênique, ubi iam diûtissimê paene aequô proeliô pugnâtum est, barbarî fugam petiêrunt. 7. Quaedam Germânôrum gentês, simul atque rûmôrem illîus calamitâtis audîvêrunt, sêsê in ultimîs regiônibus fînium suôrum abdidêrunt. 8. Rômânî saepius quam hostês vîcêrunt, quod meliôra arma habêbant. 9. Inter omnîs gentîs Rômânî plûrimum valêbant. 10. Hae cohortês simul atque in aequiôrem regiônem sê recêpêrunt, castra sine ûllâ difficultâte posuêrunt.

II. 1. Some nations are easily overcome by their enemies. 2. Germany is much larger than Gaul. 3. Were not the Romans the most powerful among the tribes of Italy? 4. On account of (his) wounds the soldier dragged his body from the ditch with the greatest difficulty. 5. He was able neither to run nor to fight. 6. Who saved him? A certain horseman boldly undertook the matter. 7. The rumors concerning the soldier's death were not true.

2. ille standing after its noun means that well-known, that famous.

Reading Selection

LESSON LVIII

NUMERALS · THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE

327. The Latin numeral adjectives may be classified as follows:

1. Cardinal Numerals, answering the question how many? as, ûnus, one; duo, two; etc.

2. Ordinal Numerals, derived in most cases from the cardinals and answering the question in what order? as, prîmus, first; secundus, second; etc.

3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time? as, singulî, one at a time.

328. The Cardinal Numerals. The first twenty of the cardinals are as follows:

a. Learn also centum = 100, ducentî = 200, mîlle = 1000.

329. Declension of the Cardinals. Of the cardinals only ûnus, duo, três, the hundreds above one hundred, and mîlle used as a noun, are declinable.

a. ûnus is one of the nine irregular adjectives, and is declined like nûllus (cf. §§ 109, 470). The plural of ûnus is used to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning, as, ûna castra, one camp; and with other nouns in the sense of only, as, Gallî ûnî, only the Gauls.

b. Learn the declension of duo, two; três, three; and mîlle, a thousand. (§ 479.)

c. The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of bonus; as,

ducentî, -ae, -a

ducentôrum, -ârum, -ôrum

etc. etc. etc.

330. We have already become familiar with sentences like the following:

Omnium avium aquila est vêlôcissima

Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest

Hoc ôrâculum erat omnium clârissimum

This oracle was the most famous of all

In such sentences the genitive denotes the whole, and the word it modifies denotes a part of that whole. Such a genitive, denoting the whole of which a part is taken, is called a partitive genitive.

331. Rule. Partitive Genitive. Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as the partitive genitive.

a. Words denoting a part are especially pronouns, numerals, and other adjectives. But cardinal numbers excepting mîlle regularly take the ablative with exor dê instead of the partitive genitive.

b. Mîlle, a thousand, in the singular is usually an indeclinable adjective (as, mîlle mîlitês, a thousand soldiers), but in the plural it is a declinable noun and takes the partitive genitive (as, decem mîlia mîlitum, ten thousand soldiers).

Examples:

Fortissimî hôrum sunt Germânî

The bravest of these are the Germans

Decem mîlia hostium interfecta sunt

Ten thousand (lit. thousands) of the enemy were slain

Ûna ex captîvîs erat soror rêgis

One of the captives was the king's sister

332. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1. Caesar maximam partem aedificiôrum incendit. 2. Magna pars mûnîtiônis aquâ flûminis dêlêta est. 3. Gallî huius regiônis quînque mîlia hominum coêgerant. 4. Duo ex meîs frâtribus eundem rûmôrem audîvêrunt. 5. Quis Rômânôrum erat clarior Caesare? 6. Quînque cohortês ex illâ legiône castra quam fortissimê dêfendêbant. 7. Hic locus aberat aequô spatiô¹ ab castrîs Caesaris et castrîs Germânôrum. 8. Caesar simul atque pervênit, plûs commeâtûs ab sociîs postulâvit. 9. Nônne mercâtôrês magnitûdinem însulae cognôverant? Longitûdinem sed nôn lâtitûdinem cognôverant. 10. Paucî hostium obtinêbant collem quem explôrâtôrês nostrî vîdêrunt.

II. 1. I have two brothers, and one of them lives at Rome. 2. Cæsar stormed that very town with three legions. 3. In one hour he destroyed a great part of the fortification. 4. When the enemy could no longer² defend the gates, they retreated to a hill which was not far distant.³ 5. There three thousand of them bravely resisted the Romans.⁴

1. Ablative of the measure of difference.

2. Not longius. Why?

3. Latin, was distant by a small space.

4. Not the accusative.

Reading Selection

LESSON LIX

NUMERALS (Continued) · THE ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT

333. Learn the first twenty of the ordinal numerals (§ 478). The ordinals are all declined like bonus.

334. The distributive numerals are declined like the plural of bonus. The first three are

singulî, -ae, -a, one each, one by one

bînî, -ae, -a, two each, two by two

ternî, -ae, -a, three each, three by three

335. We have learned that, besides its use as object, the accusative is used to express space relations not covered by the ablative. We have had such expressions as per plûrimôs annôs, for a great many years; per tôtum diem, for a whole day. Here the space relation is one of extent of time. We could also say per decem pedês, for ten feet, where the space relation is one of extent of space. While this is correct Latin, the usual form is to use the accusative with no preposition, as,

Vir tôtum diem cucurrit, the man ran for a whole day

Caesar mûrum decem pedês môvit, Cæsar moved the wall ten feet

336. Rule. Accusative of Extent. Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative.

a. This accusative answers the questions how long? how far?

b. Distinguish carefully between the accusative of time how long and the ablative of time when, or within which.

Select the accusatives of time and space and the ablatives of time in the following:

When did the general arrive? He arrived at two o'clock. How long had he been marching? For four days. How far did he march? He marched sixty-five miles. Where has he pitched his camp? Three miles from the river, and he will remain there several days. The wall around the camp is ten feet high. When did the war begin? In the first year after the king's death.

337. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298.

I. Cæsar in Gaul. Caesar bellum in Gallia septem annôs gessit. Prîmô annô Helvêtiôs vîcit, et eôdem annô multae Germanôrum gentês eî sêsê dêdidêrunt. Multôs iam annôs Germânî Gallôs vexabant¹ et ducês Germânî côpiâs suâs trâns Rhênum saepe trâdûcêbant.¹ Nôn singulî veniêbant, sed multa milia hominum in Galliam contendêbant. Quâ dê causâ prîncipês Galliae concilium convocâvêrunt atque statuêrunt legates ad Caesarem mittere. Caesar, simul atque hunc rûmôrem audîvit, côpiâs suâs sine morâ coêgit. Primâ lûce fortiter cum Germanîs proelium commîsit. Tôtum diem âcriter pugnâtum est. Caesar ipse â dextrô cornû acicm dûxit. Magna pars exercitûs Germânî cecidit. Post magnam caedem paucî multa milia passuum ad flûmen fûgêrunt.

II. 1. Cæsar pitched camp two miles from the river. 2. He fortified the camp with a ditch fifteen feet wide and a rampart nine feet high. 3. The camp of the enemy was a great way off (was distant by a great space). 4. On the next day he hastened ten miles in three hours. 5. Suddenly the enemy with all their forces made an attack upon (in with acc.) the rear. 6. For two hours the Romans were hard pressed by the barbarians. 7. In three hours the barbarians were fleeing.

1. Translate as if pluperfect.

Reading Selection

LESSON LX

DEPONENT VERBS

338. A number of verbs are passive in form but active in meaning; as, hortor, I encourage; vereor, I fear. Such verbs are called deponent because they have laid aside (dê-pônere, to lay aside) the active forms.

a. Besides having all the forms of the passive, deponent verbs have also the future active infinitive and a few other active forms which will be noted later. (Sec§§ 375, 403.b.)

339. The principal parts of deponents are of course passive in form, as,

Learn the synopses of these verbs. (See § 493.) Patior is conjugated like the passive of capiô (§ 492).

340. PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE

The prepositions with the accusative that occur most frequently are

a. Most of these you have had before. Review the old ones and learn the new ones. Review the list of prepositions governing the ablative, § 209.

341. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298.

I. 1. Três ex lêgâtîs, contrâ Caesaris opîniônem, iter facere per hostium fînîs verêbantur. 2. Quis eôs hortâtus est? Imperâtor eôs hortâtus est et iîs persuâdêre cônâtus est, sed nôn potuit. 3. Quid lêgâtôs perterruit? Aut timor hostium, quî undique premêbant, aut longitûdô viae eôs perterruit. 4. Tamen omnês ferê Caesarem multô magis quam hostîs veritî sunt. 5. Fortissimae gentês Galliae ex Germânîs oriêbantur. 6. Quam ob rem tam fortês erant? Quia nec vînum nec alia quae virtûtem dêlent ad sê portârî patiêbantur. 7. Caesar ex mercâtôribus dê însulâ Britanniâ quaesîvit, sed nihil cognôscere potuit. 8. Itaque ipse statuit hanc terram petere, et mediâ ferê aestâte cum multîs nâvibus longîs profectus est. 9. Magnâ celeritâte iter confêcit et in opportûnissimô locô êgressus est. 10. Barbarî summîs vîribus eum ab însulâ prohibêre cônâtî sunt. 11. Ille autem barbarôs multa mîlia passuum însecûtus est; tamen sine equitâtû eôs cônsequî nôn potuit.

II. 1. Contrary to our expectation, the enemy fled and the cavalry followed close after them. 2. From all parts of the multitude the shouts arose of those who were being wounded. 3. Cæsar did not allow the cavalry to pursue too far.¹ 4. The cavalry set out at the first hour and was returning² to camp at the fourth hour. 5. Around the Roman camp was a rampart twelve feet high. 6. Cæsar will delay three days because of the grain supply. 7. Nearly all the lieutenants feared the enemy and attempted to delay the march.

1. Comparative of longê.

2. Will this be a deponent or an active form?

Seventh Review, Lessons LIII-LX, §§ 524-526

[Illustration: man reading scrolls (no caption)]

PART III

CONSTRUCTIONS

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

The preceding part of this book has been concerned chiefly with forms and vocabulary. There remain still to be learned the forms of the Subjunctive Mood, the Participles, and the Gerund of the regular verb, and the conjugation of the commoner irregular verbs. These will be taken up in connection with the study of constructions, which will be the chief subject of our future work. The special vocabularies of the preceding lessons contain, exclusive of proper names, about six hundred words. As these are among the commonest words in the language, they must be mastered. They properly form the basis of the study of words, and will be reviewed and used with but few additions in the remaining lessons.

For practice in reading and to illustrate the constructions presented, a continued story has been prepared and may be begun at this point (see p. 204). It has been divided into chapters of convenient length to accompany progress through the lessons, but may be read with equal profit after the lessons are finished. The story gives an account of the life and adventures of Publius Cornelius Lentulus, a Roman boy, who fought in Cæsar's campaigns and shared in his triumph. The colored plates illustrating the story are faithful representations of ancient life and are deserving of careful study.

Reading Selection

LESSON LXI

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

342. In addition to the indicative, imperative, and infinitive moods, which you have learned, Latin has a fourth mood called the subjunctive. The tenses of the subjunctive are

343. The tenses of the subjunctive have the same time values as the corresponding tenses of the indicative, and, in addition, each of them may refer to future time. No meanings of the tenses will be given in the paradigms, as the translation varies with the construction used.

344. The present subjunctive is inflected as follows:

a. The present subjunctive is formed from the present stem.

b. The mood sign of the present subjunctive is -ê- in the first conjugation and -â- in the others. It is shortened in the usual places (cf. § 12), and takes the place of the final vowel of the stem in the first and third conjugations, but not in the second and fourth.

c. The personal endings are the same as in the indicative.

d. In a similar way inflect the present subjunctive of cûrô, iubeô, sûmô, iaciô, mûniô.

345. The present subjunctive of the irregular verb sum is inflected as follows:

346. The Indicative and Subjunctive Compared. 1. The two most important of the finite moods are the indicative and the subjunctive. The indicative deals with facts either real or assumed. If, then, we wish to assert something as a fact or to inquire after a fact, we use the indicative.

2. On the other hand, if we wish to express a desire or wish, a purpose, a possibility, an expectation, or some such notion, we must use the subjunctive. The following sentences illustrate the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive ideas.

1. pervenîret, imperfect subjunctive.

Note. From the sentences above we observe that the subjunctive may be used in either independent or dependent clauses; but it is far more common in the latter than in the former.

347. EXERCISE

Which verbs in the following paragraph would be in the indicative and which in the subjunctive in a Latin translation?

There have been times in the history of our country when you might be proud of being an American citizen. Do you remember the day when Dewey sailed into Manila Bay to capture or destroy the enemy's fleet? You might have seen the admiral standing on the bridge calmly giving his orders. He did not even wait until the mines should be removed from the harbor's mouth, but sailed in at once. Let us not despair of our country while such valor exists, and may the future add new glories to the past.

Reading Selection

LESSON LXII

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE

348. Observe the sentence

Caesar hominês mittit quî pontem reperiant,

Cæsar sends men to find the bridge

The verb reperiant in the dependent clause is in the subjunctive because it tells us what Cæsar wants the men to do; in other words, it expresses his will and the purpose in his mind. Such a use of the subjunctive is called the subjunctive of purpose.

349. Rule. Subjunctive of Purpose. The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the purpose of the action in the principal clause.

350. A clause of purpose is introduced as follows:

I. If something is wanted, by

quî, the relative pronoun (as above)

ut, conj., in order that, that

quô (abl. of quî, by which), in order that, that, used when the purpose clause contains a comparative. The ablative quô expresses the measure of difference. (Cf. § 317.)

II. If something is not wanted, by

nê, conj., in order that not, that not, lest

351. EXAMPLES

352. Expression of Purpose in English. In English, purpose clauses are sometimes introduced by that or in order that, but much more frequently purpose is expressed in English by the infinitive, as We eat to live, She stoops to conquer. In Latin prose, on the other hand, purpose is never expressed by the infinitive. Be on your guard and do not let the English idiom betray you into this error.

353. EXERCISES

I.

II. 1. The Helvetii send ambassadors to seek¹ peace. 2. They are setting out at daybreak in order that they may make a longer march before night. 3. They will hide the women in the forest (acc. with in) that they may not be captured. 4. The Gauls wage many wars to free¹ their fatherland from slavery. 5. They will resist the Romans² bravely lest they be destroyed.

1. Not infinitive.

2. Not accusative.

Reading Selection

LESSON LXIII

INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

354. The imperfect subjunctive may be formed by adding the personal endings to the present active infinitive.

a. In a similar way inflect the imperfect subjunctive, active and passive, of cûrô, iubeô, sûmô, iaciô, mûniô.

355. The imperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb sum is inflected as follows:

356. The three great distinctions of time are present, past, and future. All tenses referring to present or future time are called primary tenses, and those referring to past time are called secondary tenses. Now it is a very common law of language that in a complex sentence the tense in the dependent clause should be of the same kind as the tense in the principal clause. In the sentence He says that he is coming, the principal verb, says, is present, that is, is in a primary tense; and is coming, in the dependent clause, is naturally also primary. If I change he says to he said,—in other words, if I make the principal verb secondary in character,—I feel it natural to change the verb in the dependent clause also, and I say, He said that he was coming. This following of a tense by another of the same kind is called tense sequence, from sequî, "to follow."

In Latin the law of tense sequence is obeyed with considerable regularity, especially when an indicative in the principal clause is followed by a subjunctive in the dependent clause. Then a primary tense of the indicative is followed by a primary tense of the subjunctive, and a secondary tense of the indicative is followed by a secondary tense of the subjunctive. Learn the following table:

357. Table for Sequence of Tenses

358. Rule. Sequence of Tenses. Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses and secondary by secondary.

359. EXAMPLES

I. Primary tenses in principal and dependent clauses:

II. Secondary tenses in principal and dependent clauses:

360. EXERCISES

I.

II. 1. Cæsar encouraged the soldiers in order that they might fight more bravely. 2. The Helvetii left their homes to wage war. 3. The scouts set out at once lest they should be captured by the Germans. 4. Cæsar inflicted punishment on them in order that the others might be more terrified. 5. He sent messengers to Rome to announce the victory.

Reading Selection

LESSON LXIV

THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE

361. The perfect and the pluperfect subjunctive active are inflected as follows:

a. Observe that these two tenses, like the corresponding ones in the indicative, are formed from the perfect stem.

b. Observe that the perfect subjunctive active is like the future perfect indicative active, excepting that the first person singular ends in -m and not in -ô.

c. Observe that the pluperfect subjunctive active may be formed by adding -issem, -issês, etc. to the perfect stem.

d. In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive active of cûrô, iubeô, sûmô, iaciô, mûniô.

362. The passive of the perfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with sim, the present subjunctive of sum.

363. The passive of the pluperfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with essem, the imperfect subjunctive of sum.

a. In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive passive of cûrô, iubeô, sûmô, iaciô, mûniô.

364. The perfect and pluperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb sum are inflected as follows:

365. A substantive clause is a clause used like a noun, as,

That the men are afraid is clear enough (clause as subject)

He ordered them to call on him (clause as object)

We have already had many instances of infinitive clauses used in this way (cf. § 213), and have noted the similarity between Latin and English usage in this respect. But the Latin often uses the subjunctive in substantive clauses, and this marks an important difference between the two languages.

366. Rule. Substantive Clauses of Purpose. A substantive clause of purpose with the subjunctive is used as the object of verbs of commanding, urging,asking, persuading, or advising, where in English we should usually have the infinitive.

EXAMPLES

a. The object clauses following these verbs all express the purpose or will of the principal subject that something be done or not done. (Cf. § 348.)

367. The following verbs are used with object clauses of purpose. Learn the list and the principal parts of the new ones.

N.B. Remember that iubeô, order, takes the infinitive as in English. (Cf. § 213. 1.) Compare the sentences

Iubeô eum venîre, I order him to come

Imperô eî ut veniat, I give orders to him that he is to come

We ordinarily translate both of these sentences like the first, but the difference in meaning between iubeô and imperô in the Latin requires the infinitive in the one case and the subjunctive in the other.

368. EXERCISES

I. 1. Petit atque hortâtur ut ipse dîcat. 2. Caesar Helvêtiîs imperrâvit nê per prôvinciam iter facerent. 3. Caesar nôn iussit Helvêtiôs per prôvinciam iter facere. 4. Ille cîvibus persuâsit ut dê fînibus suîs discêderent. 5. Caesar prîncipês monêbit nê proelium committant. 6. Postulâvit nê cum Helvêtiîs aut cum eôrum sociîs bellum gererent. 7. Ab iîs quaesîvî nê proficîscerentur. 8. Iîs persuâdêre nôn potuî ut domî manêrent.

II. 1. Who ordered Cæsar to make the march? (Write this sentence both with imperô and with iubeô.) 2. The faithless scouts persuaded him to set out at daybreak. 3. They will ask him not to inflict punishment. 4. He demanded that they come to the camp. 5. He advised them to tell everything (omnia).

Note. Do not forget that the English infinitive expressing purpose must be rendered by a Latin subjunctive. Review § 352.

Reading Selection

[Illustration: legion on the march

Caption: LEGIO ITER FACIT]

LESSON LXV

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF POSSUM · VERBS OF FEARING

369. Learn the subjunctive of possum (§ 495), and note especially the position of the accent.

370. Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing. We have learned that what we want done or not done is expressed in Latin by a subjunctive clause of purpose. In this class belong also clauses after verbs of fearing, for we fear either that something will happen or that it will not, and we either want it to happen or we do not. If we want a thing to happen and fear that it will not, the purpose clause is introduced by ut. If we do not want it to happen and fear that it will,nê is used. Owing to a difference between the English and Latin idiom we translate ut after a verb of fearing by that not, and nê by that or lest.

371. EXAMPLES

I fear, shall fear, shall have feared, that he will not come, has not come

I was fearing, feared, had feared, that he would not come, had not come

The same examples with nê instead of ut would be translated I fear that or lest he will come, has come, etc.

372. Rule. Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing. Verbs of fearing are followed by a substantive clause of purpose introduced by ut (that not) or nê (thator lest).

373. EXERCISES

I. 1. Caesar verêbâtur ut supplicium captîvôrum Gallîs placêret. 2. Rômânî ipsî magnopere verêbantur nê Helvêtiî iter per prôvinciam facerent. 3. Timêbant ut satis reî frûmentâriae mittî posset. 4. Vereor ut hostium impetum sustinêre possim. 5. Timuit nê impedîmenta ab hostibus capta essent. 6. Caesar numquam timuit nê legiônês vincerentur. 7. Legiônês pugnâre nôn timuêrunt.¹

1. Distinguish between what one is afraid to do (complementary infinitive as here) and what one is afraid will take place or has taken place(substantive clause with the subjunctive).

II. 1. We fear that they are not coming. 2. We fear lest they are coming. 3. We feared that they had come. 4. We feared that they had not come. 5. They feared greatly that the camp could not be defended. 6. Almost all feared¹ to leave the camp.

Reading Selection

LESSON LXVI

THE PARTICIPLES

374. The Latin verb has the following Participles:1

1. Review § 203.

2. The future passive participle is often called the gerundive.

a. The present active and future passive participles are formed from the present stem, and the future active and perfect passive participles are formed from the participial stem.

b. The present active participle is formed by adding -ns to the present stem. In -iô verbs of the third conjugation, and in the fourth conjugation, the stem is modified by the addition of -ê-, as capi-ê-ns, audi-ê-ns. It is declined like an adjective of one ending of the third declension. (Cf. § 256.)

(1) When used as an adjective the ablative singular ends in -î; when used as a participle or as a substantive, in -e.

(2) In a similar way decline monêns, regêns, capiêns, audiêns.

c. The future active participle is formed by adding -ûrus to the base of the participial stem. We have already met this form combined with esse to produce the future active infinitive. (Cf. § 206.)

d. For the perfect passive participle see § 201. The future passive participle or gerundive is formed by adding -ndus to the present stem.

e. All participles in -us are declined like bonus.

f. Participles agree with nouns or pronouns like adjectives.

g. Give all the participles of the following verbs: cûrô, iubeô, sûmô, iaciô, mûniô.

375. Participles of Deponent Verbs. Deponent verbs have the participles of the active voice as well as of the passive; consequently every deponent verb has four participles, as,

a. Observe that the perfect participle of deponent verbs is passive in form but active in meaning. No other verbs have a perfect active participle. On the other hand, the future passive participle of deponent verbs is passive in meaning as in other verbs.

b. Give the participles of cônor, vereor, sequor, patior, partior.

376. Tenses of the Participle. The tenses express time as follows:

1. The present active participle corresponds to the English present active participle in -ing, but can be used only of an action occurring at the same time as the action of the main verb; as, mîlitês însequentês cêpêrunt multôs, the soldiers, while pursuing, captured many. Here the pursuing and the capturing are going on together.

2. The perfect participle (excepting of deponents) is regularly passive and corresponds to the English past participle with or without the auxiliary having been; as, audîtus, heard or having been heard.

3. The future active participle, translated about to, etc., denotes time after the action of the main verb.

377. Review §§ 203, 204, and, note the following model sentences:

1. Mîlitês currentês erant dêfessî, the soldiers who were running (lit. running) were weary.

2. Caesar profectûrus Rômam nôn exspectâvit, Cæsar, when about to set out (lit. about to set out) for Rome, did not wait.

3. Oppidum captum vîdimus, we saw the town which had been captured (lit. captured town).

4. Imperâtor trîduum morâtus profectus est, the general, since (when, or after) he had delayed (lit. the general, having delayed) three days, set out.

5. Mîlitês vîctî terga nôn vertêrunt, the soldiers, though they were conquered (lit. the soldiers conquered), did not retreat.

In each of these sentences the literal translation of the participle is given in parentheses. We note, however, that its proper translation usually requires a clause beginning with some conjunction (when, since, after, though, etc.), or a relative clause. Consider, in each case, what translation will best bring out the thought, and do not, as a rule, translate the participle literally.

378. EXERCISES

I. 1. Puer timêns nê capiâtur fugit. 2. Aquila îrâ commôta avîs reliquâs interficere cônâta erat. 3. Mîlitês ab hostibus pressî têla iacere nôn potuêrunt. 4. Caesar decimam legiônem laudâtûrus ad prîmum agmen prôgressus est. 5. Imperâtor hortâtus equitês ut fortiter pugnârent signum proeliô dedit. 6. Mîlitês hostîs octô milia passuum însecûtî multîs cum captîvîs ad castra revertêrunt. 7. Sôl oriêns multôs interfectôs vîdit. 8. Rômânî cônsilium audâx suspicâtî barbaris sêsê nôn commîsêrunt. 9. Nâvis ê portû êgressa nûllô in perîculô erat.

II.3 1. The army was in very great danger while marching through the enemy's country. 2. Frightened by the length of the way, they longed for home. 3. When the scouts were about to set out, they heard the shouts of victory. 4. When we had delayed many days, we set fire to the buildings and departed. 5. While living at Rome I heard orators much better than these. 6. The soldiers who are fighting across the river are no braver than we.

3. In this exercise use participles for the subordinate clauses.

Reading Selection

LESSON LXVII

THE IRREGULAR VERBS VOLÔ, NÔLÔ, MÂLÔ · THE ABLATIVE WITH A PARTICIPLE, OR ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE

379. Learn the principal parts and conjugation of volô, wish; nôlô (ne + volô), be unwilling; mâlô (magis + volô), be more willing, prefer (§ 497). Note the irregularities in the present indicative, subjunctive, and infinitive, and in the imperfect subjunctive. (Cf. § 354.)

a. These verbs are usually followed by the infinitive with or without a subject accusative; as, volunt venîre, they wish to come; volunt amîcôs venîre,they wish their friends to come. The English usage is the same.¹

1. Sometimes the subjunctive of purpose is used after these verbs. (See § 366.)

380. Observe the following sentences:

1. Magistrô laudante omnês puerî dîligenter labôrant, with the teacher praising, or since the teacher praises, or the teacher praising, all the boys labor diligently.

2. Caesare dûcente nêmô prôgredî timet, with Cæsar leading, or when Cæsar leads, or if Cæsar leads, or Cæsar leading, no one fears to advance.

3. His rêbus cognitîs mîlitês fûgêrunt, when this was known, or since this was known, or these things having been learned, the soldiers fled.

4. Proeliô commissô multî vulnerâtî sunt, after the battle had begun, or when the battle had begun, or the battle having been joined, many were wounded.

a. One of the fundamental ablative relations is expressed in English by the preposition with (cf. § 50). In each of the sentences above we have a noun and a participle in agreement in the ablative, and the translation shows that in each instance the ablative expresses attendant circumstance. For example, in the first sentence the circumstance attending or accompanying the diligent labor of the boys is the praise of the teacher. This is clearly a with relation, and the ablative is the case to use.

b. We observe, further, that the ablative and its participle are absolutely independent grammatically of the rest of the sentence. If we were to express the thought in English in a similar way, we should use the nominative independent or absolute. In Latin the construction is called the Ablative Absolute, or the Ablative with a Participle. This form of expression is exceedingly common in Latin, but rather rare in English, so we must not, as a rule, employ the English absolute construction to translate the ablative abolute. The attendant circumstance may be one of time (when or after), or one of cause (since), or one of concession (though), or one of condition (if). In each case try to discover the precise relation, and tranlate the ablative and its participle by a clause which will best express the thought.

381. Rule. Ablative Absolute. The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance.

Note 1. The verb sum has no present participle. In consequence we often find two nouns or a noun and an adjective in the ablative absolute with no participle expressed; as, tê duce, you (being) leader, with you as leader; patre înfirmô, my father (being) weak.

Note 2. Be very careful not to put in the ablative absolute a noun and participle that form the subject or object of a sentence. Compare

a. The Gauls, having been conquered by Cæsar, returned home

b. The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar, the army returned home

In a the subject is The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar, and we translate,

Gallî â Caesare victi domum revertêrunt

In b the subject is the army. The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar is nominative absolute in English, which requires the ablative absolute in Latin, and we translate,

Gallîs â Caesare victîs exercitus domum revertit

Note 3. The fact that only deponent verbs have a perfect active participle (cf. § 375. a) often compels a change of voice when translating from one language to the other. For example, we can translate Cæsar having encouraged the legions just as it stands, because hortor is a deponent verb. But if we wish to say Cæsar having conquered the Gauls, we have to change the voice of the participle to the passive because vincô is not deponent, and say, the Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar (see translation above).

382. EXERCISES

I. 1. Mâvîs, nôn vîs, vultis, nôlumus. 2. Ut nôlit, ut vellêmus, ut mâlit. 3. Nôlî, velle, nôluisse, mâlle. 4. Vult, mâvultis, ut nôllet, nôlîte. 5. Sôle oriente, avês cantâre incêpêrunt. 6. Clâmôribus audîtîs, barbarî prôgredî recûsâbant. 7. Caesare legiônês hortâtô, mîlitês paulô fortius pugnâvêrunt. 8. Hîs rêbus cognitîs, Helvêtiî fînitimîs persuâsêrunt ut sêcum iter facerent. 9. Labôribus cônfectîs, mîlitês â Caesare quaerêbant ut sibi praemia daret. 10. Conciliô convocâtô, prîncipês ita respondêrunt. 11. Dux plûrîs diês in Helvêtiôrum fînibus morâns multôs vîcôs incendit. 12. Magnitûdine Germânôrum cognitâ, quîdam ex Rômânis timêbant. 13. Mercâtôribus rogâtîs, Caesar nihilô plûs reperîre potuit.

II. 1. He was unwilling, lest they prefer, they have wished. 2. You prefer, that they might be unwilling, they wish. 3. We wish, they had preferred, that he may prefer. 4. Cæsar, when he heard the rumor (the rumor having been heard), commanded (imperâre) the legions to advance more quickly. 5. Since Cæsar was leader, the men were willing to make the journey. 6. A few, terrified² by the reports which they had heard, preferred to remain at home. 7. After these had been left behind, the rest hastened as quickly as possible. 8. After Cæsar had undertaken the business (Cæsar, the business having been undertaken), he was unwilling to delay longer.³

2. Would the ablative absolute be correct here?

3. Not longius. Why?

Reading Selection

LESSON LXVIII

THE IRREGULAR VERB FÎÔ · THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT

383. The verb fîô, be made, happen, serves as the passive of faciô, make, in the present system. The rest of the verb is formed regularly from faciô. Learn the principal parts and conjugation (§ 500). Observe that the i is long except before -er and in fit.

a. The compounds of facio with prepositions usually form the passive regularly, as,

384. Observe the following sentences:

1. Terror erat tantus ut omnês fugerent, the terror was so great that all fled.

2. Terror erat tantus ut nôn facile mîlitês sêsê reciperent, the terror was so great that the soldiers did not easily recover themselves.

3. Terror fêcit ut omnês fugerent, terror caused all to flee (lit. made that all fled).

a. Each of these sentences is complex, containing a principal clause and a subordinate clause.

b. The principal clause names a cause and the subordinate clause states the consequence or result of this cause.

c. The subordinate clause has its verb in the subjunctive, though it is translated like an indicative. The construction is called the subjunctive of consequence or result, and the clause is called a consecutive or result clause.

d. In the last example the clause of result is the object of the verb fêcit.

e. The conjunction introducing the consecutive or result clause is ut = so that; negative, ut nôn = so that not.

385. Rule. Subjunctive of Result. Consecutive clauses of result are introduced by ut or ut nôn and have the verb in the subjunctive.

386. Rule. Object clauses of result with ut or ut nôn are found after verbs of effecting or bringing about.

387. Purpose and Result Clauses Compared. There is great similarity in the expression of purpose and of result in Latin. If the sentence is affirmative, both purpose and result clauses may be introduced by ut; but if the sentence is negative, the purpose clause has nê and the result clause ut nôn. Result clauses are often preceded in the main clause by such words as tam, ita, sic (so), and these serve to point them out. Compare

Which sentence contains a result clause, and how is it pointed out?

388. EXERCISES

I. 1. Fit, fîet, ut fîat, fîêbâmus. 2. Fîô, fîês, ut fierent, fierî, fîunt. 3. Fîêtis, ut fîâmus, fîs, fîemus. 4. Mîlitês erant tam tardî ut ante noctem in castra nôn pervenîrent. 5. Sôl facit ut omnia sint pulchra. 6. Eius modî perîcula erant ut nêmô proficîscî vellet. 7. Equitês hostium cum equitâtû nostrô in itinere contendêrunt, ita tamen¹ ut nostrî omnibus in partibus superiôrês essent. 8. Virtûs mîlitum nostrôrum fêcit ut hostês nê ûnum quidem² impetum sustinêrent. 9. Hominês erant tam audâcês ut nûllô modô continêrî possent. 10. Spatium erat tam parvum ut mîlitês têla iacere nôn facile possent. 11. Hôc proeliô factô barbarî ita perterritî sunt ut ab ultimîs gentibus lêgâtî ad Caesarem mitterentur. 12. Hoc proelium factum est nê lêgâtî ad Caesarem mitterentur.

1. ita tamen, with such a result however.

2. nê ... quidem, not even. The emphatic word is placed between.

II. 1. It will happen, they were being made, that it may happen. 2. It happens, he will be made, to happen. 3. They are made, we were being made, lest it happen. 4. The soldiers are so brave that they conquer. 5. The soldiers are brave in order that they may conquer. 6. The fortification was made so strong that it could not be taken. 7. The fortification was made strong in order that it might not be taken. 8. After the town was taken,³ the townsmen feared that they would be made slaves. 9. What state is so weak that it is unwilling to defend itself?

3. Ablative absolute.

Reading Selection

LESSON LXIX

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC OR DESCRIPTION · THE PREDICATE ACCUSATIVE

389. Akin to the subjunctive of consequence or result is the use of the subjunctive in clauses of characteristic or description.

This construction is illustrated in the following sentences:

1. Quis est quî suam domum nôn amet? who is there who does not love his own home?

2. Erant quî hoc facere nôllent, there were (some) who were unwilling to do this.

3. Tû nôn is es quî amîcôs trâdâs, you are not such a one as to, or you are not the man to, betray your friends.

4. Nihil videô quod timeam, I see nothing to fear (nothing of such as character as to fear it).

a. Each of these examples contains a descriptive relative clause which tells what kind of a person or thing the antecedent is. To express this thought the subjunctive is used. A relative clause that merely states a fact and does not describe the antecedent uses the indicative. Compare the sentences

Cæsar is the man who is leading us, Caesar est is quî nôs dûcit

(mere statement of fact, no description, with the indicative)

Cæsar is the man to lead us, Caesar est is quî nôs dûcat

(descriptive relative clause with the subjunctive)

b. Observe that in this construction a demonstrative pronoun and a relative, as is quî, are translated such a one as to, the man to.

c. In which of the following sentences would you use the indicative and in which the subjunctive?

These are not the men who did this

These are not the men to do this

390. Rule. Subjunctive of Characteristic. A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent. This is called the subjunctive of characteristic or description.

391. Observe the sentences

1. Rômânî Caesarem cônsulem fêcêrunt, the Romans made Cæsar consul.

2. Caesar cônsul â Rômânîs factus est, Cæsar was made consul by the Romans.

a. Observe in 1 that the transitive verb fêcêrunt, made, has two objects: (1) the direct object, Caesarem; (2) a second object, cônsulem, referring to the same person as the direct object and completing the predicate. The second accusative is called a Predicate Accusative.

b. Observe in 2 that when the verb is changed to the passive both of the accusatives become nominatives, the direct object becoming the subject and thepredicate accusative the predicate nominative.

392. Rule. Two Accusatives. Verbs of making, choosing, calling, showing, and the like, may take a predicate accusative along with the direct object. With the passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives.

393. The verbs commonly found with two accusatives are

394. EXERCISES

I. 1. In Germâniae silvis sunt¹ multa genera ferârum quae reliquîs in locîs nôn vîsa sint. 2. Erant¹ itinera duo quibus Helvêtiî domô discêdere possent. 3. Erat¹ manus nûlla, nûllum oppidum, nûllum praesidium quod sê armîs dêfenderet. 4. Tôtô frûmentô raptô, domî nihil erat quô mortem prohibêre possent. 5. Rômânî Galbam ducem creâvêrunt et summâ celeritâte profectî sunt. 6. Neque erat¹ tantae multitûdinis quisquam quî morârî vellet. 7. Germânî nôn iî sunt quî adventum Caesaris vereantur. 8. Cônsulibus occîsîs erant quî² vellent cum rêgem creâre. 9. Pâce factâ erat nêmô quî arma trâdere nôllet. 10. Inter Helvêtiôs quis erat quî nôbilior illô esset?

II. 1. The Romans called the city Rome. 2. The city was called Rome by the Romans. 3. The better citizens wished to choose him king. 4. The brave soldier was not the man to run. 5. There was no one ³to call me friend. 6. These are not the men to⁴ betray their friends. 7. There were (some) who called him the bravest of all.

1. Remember that when the verb sum precedes its subject it is translated there is, there are, there were, etc.

2. erant quî, there were (some) who. A wholly indefinite antecedent of quî does not need to be expressed.

3. A relative clause of characteristic or description.

4. See § 389.b.

Reading Selection

Eighth Review, Lessons LXI-LXIX, §§ 527-528

LESSON LXX

THE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE CONJUNCTION CUM · THE ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION

395. The conjunction cum has the following meanings and constructions:

cum temporal = when, followed by the indicative or the subjunctive

cum causal = since, followed by the subjunctive

cum concessive = although, followed by the subjunctive

As you observe, the mood after cum is sometimes indicative and sometimes subjunctive. The reason for this will be made clear by a study of the following sentences:

1. Caesarem vîdî tum cum in Galliâ eram, I saw Cæsar at the time when I was in Gaul.

2. Caesar in eôs impetum fêcit cum pâcem peterent, Cæsar made an attack upon them when they were seeking peace.

3. Hoc erat difficile cum paucî sine vulneribus essent, this was difficult, since only a few were without wounds.

4. Cum prîmî ôrdinês fûgissent, tamen reliquî fortiter cônsistêbant, though the front ranks had fled, yet the rest bravely stood their ground.

a. The underlying principle is one already familiar to you (cf. § 389.a). When the cum clause states a fact and simply fixes the time at which the main action took place, the indicative mood is used. So, in the first example, cum in Galliâ eram fixes the time when I saw Cæsar.

b. On the other hand, when the cum clause describes the circumstances under which the main act took place, the subjunctive mood is used. So, in the second example, the principal clause states that Cæsar made an attack, and the cum clause describes the circumstances under which this act occurred. The idea of time is also present, but it is subordinate to the idea of description. Sometimes the descriptive clause is one of cause and we translate cum bysince; sometimes it denotes concession and cum is translated although.

396. Rule. Constructions with Cum. The conjunction cum means when, since, or although. It is followed by the subjunctive unless it means when and its clause fixes the time at which the main action took place.

Note. Cum in clauses of description with the subjunctive is much more common than its use with the indicative.

397. Note the following sentences:

1. Oppidum erat parvum magnitûdine sed magnum multitûdine hominum, the town was small in size but great in population.