The first two Psalms are an introduction to the whole Psalter. Psalm 1 states that there are only two responses to Yahweh and his torah, being either the flourishing of obedience, or the mockery of rebellion. These responses have two distinct eternal outcomes. Psalm 2 places front and centre the importance of the Christ or Messiah established in Jerusalem: the way we must respond to God, whether Jew or Gentile, is by taking refuge in the Davidic King, the Son of God, who is God's chosen Messiah. The obedience of wise living by God's law in Psalm 1 is tied with and bound to refuge in God's chosen human Messiah and God's chosen dwelling in Jerusalem, according to Psalm 2.
In the last 40 years there has been a great appreciation of the 'storyline' of the Psalter. While each individual psalms has its own story to tell and can be appreciated standing alone (as a hit single), the collection of the individual compositions into five books likewise is worthy of study (as an album, even a prog-rock concept album). The placement, organisation, and juxtaposition of the songs as an anthology in the centuries after their original composition, as well as the addition of new songs which brought the Psalter to its final form at some time after the exile as five 'Books', can be seen to provide a grand narrative of the unfolding salvation-history of God with his people from the establishment of the united constitutional monarchy under the law of Moses to the remnant's restoration to the promised land after Babylonian exile, and their renewed life in the land. Key indicators can particularly be seen in the opening and final psalms of each book (which have long been seen as the 'greatest hits' of the psalter), psalms in the middle of the books (that stand as stops along the way or columns in the middle of a building), and the acrostic poems in books one and five. The 'Psalter story line' is of necessity 'pixelated': that story is presented in form more like a mosaic (or 'minecraft' character) than a photo-quality, hyper detailed painting. Each individual psalm is also telling its own story and has integrity on its own. But the whole of the Psalter likewise tells its own story.
I think of the Psalter a bit like a 'Bunnings' TV ad. The style of the Bunnings advertising campaign for many years now has been to have an individual interview with a team member that tells its own story: ifor example, t is spring so come and buy some bulbs or seedlings to plant. The employee in their uniform states what they love about spring, or about helping customers buying things for spring planting. But at the end of the advertisement, that individual story is minimised and reduced and placed in a broader collage or mosaic, as the camera pans back to see that the one interview we have just seen is part of many interviews that as a whole makes up the name, logo, and experience of shopping at 'Bunnings'.
Psalm 1: Two Ways To Live [SS, ET, ST]
Psalm 2: Kiss the Son or Kiss Salvation Goodbye [SS, ET, ST]
Psalm 3 brings us down to reality: the real-life Messiah, David, is fleeing Jerusalem for his life from his own son Absalom as punishment for his sin of adultery and murder concerning the wife of Uriah. These Psalms give examples of meditating on God's instruction "day and night" (1:2). Psalms 3 and 5 were apt psalms for the morning, while Psalms 4 and 6 were appropriate psalms for the evening. Perhaps their place at the beginning of the psalter reflects that aptitude, in that they may have performed a liturgical function.
Psalm 3: God Saves the Sinner Suffering Because of his Sin: For the Morning [SS, ET, ST]
Psalm 4: Yahweh, Our Joy By Day, Our Peace At Night: For the Evening [SS, ET, ST]
Psalm 5: Wrath for Rebels, Love For Those Seeking Refuge in Yahweh: For The Morning [ST, ET, EN]
Psalm 6: Come Back And Save Me, Yahweh, in My Dismay: For The Evening [ST, ET]
While Psalm 1 promises that the righteous will flourish, it is clear from Psalms 3-6 that this occurs in the real life of the Messiah facing opposition, rebellion, bearing consequences for his own sin, and experiencing emotional distress. As part of this, the righteous at times also suffer while the wicked prosper. How does this fit with the promised prosperity through meditating on torah and taking refuge in Messiah (Psalms 1-2; cf. 4:6)? David confronts this dilemma. He seeks God's vindicating just judgment in the context of enemies and suffering. The wicked, whether in Israel (Psalm 7) or the surrounding nations (Psalms 9-10) have not sought refu4:6ge in the Messiah and honour their creator (Psalms 9-10). They have failed to remember that they are only frail dying humans. Rather, the appropriate response is to praise God's splendid name (Psalm 8).
Psalm 7: Vindicate Me In Your Righteousness [ET]
Psalm 8: God’s Panoramic Splendour [SS, ET]
Psalms 9-10: Yahweh Trusted Amidst The Wicked [ET]
In this group of psalms, the faithful have vanished and the wicked are flourishing everywhere. While the one who keeps God's law will dwell in his presence (Psalm 15; cf. Psalm 1), humans universally are guilty of wrongdoing: “They do abominable deeds; there is none who does good” (14:1), including God's Old Testament Messiah. David lamented, “Oh, that salvation for Israel would come out of Zion!” (14:7). This longing was satisfied with coming of the Lord Jesus Christ (Rom 11:26-27). David also looked ahead to the resurrection of Jesus Christ (Psalm 16:9-11; Acts 2:30-31).
Psalm 11: Yahweh Trusted Amidst Danger [ET]
Psalm 12: When Wickedness Is All Around [ET]
Psalm 13: Yahweh Trusted When The Enemy Is On Top [ET]
Psalm 14: No-One Good, Not Even One [ET]
Psalm 15: Who Can Dwell In God's Presence [ET]
Psalm 16: You Will Not Leave Me in Sheol [ET]
Psalm 17: Incline Your Ear to Me [ET]
Despite the terrible situation of universal sinfulness revealed to us (Psalms 12:1, 14:3), which has affected even the Old Testament Christ (Psalms 3, 6), Psalms 18-19 urge us to continue our walk the way we commenced it, meditating on torah and taking refuge in Messiah (Psalm 1-2). David testifies to God's faithfulness to him in rescuing him and establishing his throne (Psalm 18), and praises God for his creation and law (Psalm 19).
Psalm 18: A Song of Deliverance [ET]
Psalm 19: Praise for General and Special Revelation [ET]
God himself was Israel's warrior king (Exod 14:14; 15:3; Deut 20:1-4; 24:10; 1 Sam 8:7-8). However, Israel sinfully demanded a human king, someone that they could see, so that they would be like all the other nations. So God chose and adopted David, the man after his heart, to go in and out before Israel and fight her battles for her (1 Sam 8:19-20). Psalm 20 was sung when Israel's king and army departed for battle; Psalm 21, at their victorious return. Israel's shepherd, David, himself had a shepherd, Yahweh (Psalm 23). And when God, the true warrior-king returns in victory to his city Jerusalem, he is too tall: the lintels of the doorways must be raised to admit him. But the great and abiding victory of God's Son, his vassal and human king, will be rendered through his own suffering unto death, having his hands and feet pierced, and then celebrating God's vindication of him with his brothers (Psalm 22).
Psalm 20: Not by Chariots Nor Horses [ET]
Psalm 21: Yahweh's Blessings On His King [ET]
Psalm 22: The King's Affliction Cosmically Celebrated [SS, ET]
Psalm 23: Yahweh the King's Shepherd [ET]
Psalm 24: Yahweh Owns The World [ET]
Psalm 1 directs the righteous to the right way when they set out; Psalm 25 provides opportunity for U-turns and course corrections mid-journey. It provides an exit from the way of the wicked that allows someone to (re)join the righteous way. For the first time in the Psalter, David confesses his sinfulness (25:6-8, 11, 18). This is unsurprising, because meditating on God's law, as David has done, brings us a knowledge of our sin (Rom 3:19-20; 7:7-9). In Psalm 26, David testifies that he took the warning of Psalm 1 and shunned the wicked’s counsel. He is ready for Yahweh’s examination, though he also expresses his need for ‘refining’ (26:1-2, 11). In these Psalms King David bears testimony to and for his people before heaven and earth to God's sovereignty, creation, goodness and power in the midst of suffering, sickness, enemies, and death. In all this, God's Christ gives his people a model of teachableness.
Psalm 25: Remember Not The Sins Of My Youth [ET]
Psalm 27: Yahweh Gathers The Orphan [ET]
Psalm 28: The Christ Calls For Vengeance [ET]
Psalm 29: Yahweh Over The So-Called Deities Of The Nations [ET]
Psalm 30: A Moment In His Anger; Lifetimes In His Acceptance [ET]
King David has become a pariah: people run from him in the streets (31:11-13). He wisely seeks refuge in Yahweh, where he is protected from human schemes and freed from shame. Psalms 31-32 reveals David’s emotional and physical distress under conviction of sin (cf. Psalm 6). Forgiveness comes through confessing them to God (Psalm 32). He wants us all to learn from his painful experience. The blessing of forgiveness shows that sin committed along the way need not nullify the blessings offered by Psalm 1-2. Forgiveness frees us to praise God anew with fresh appreciation of his blessings, inspiring new songs and new invitations to the nations to join Israel in praising Yahweh and receiving his blessings (Psalms 33-34).
Psalm 31: Refuge Found In A Besieged City [ET]
Psalm 32: No Cover Ups: That's God's Job [SS, ET]
Psalm 33: God Rules By His Word [ET]
Psalm 34: Taste and See That Yahweh Is Good [ET]
These psalms show that the Christ again experiences emotional distress caused by underserved enmity and betrayal: hardly a new theme (cf. Psalms 2, 3, 7, 11, 13, 17, 22, 25, 31). David is the suffering servant of Yahweh (35:27; 36 heading; cf. 18 heading; 2 Sam 7:8). In Psalms 36 and 37, the Christ distinguishes the wicked from the righteous again to warn against the danger of joining them (cf. Psalm 1). Psalm 37 is David’s reflection and wisdom teaching when he is old (cf. Psalm 18) from a personal, intimate perspective: David has internalised the torah and observed the world. It is the righteous poor who shall inherit the land (Psalm 37:9-11, 22, 29, 34), a promise that Jesus reiterates (Matt 5:5).
Psalm 35: Betrayed By My Friend [ET]
Psalm 36: An Oracles Concerning The Transgression of the Wicked [ET]
Psalm 37: Don't Get Hot Under The Collar About the Wicked [ET]
David's guilt for sin runs below the surface of the first part of Book One (Psalm 6; cf. 31:9-10; 32:3-4; 19:12-14), but his explicit confession of sin emerges in Psalm 25. David's confession affords the righteous an opportunity to take stock of their walk, and take the blessing of forgiveness offered them in Psalm 32. David’s guilt is emphasized as Book One concludes. In each Psalm in this group, David confesses that he is sinful (38:3-5, 16, 18; 39:8, 11; 40:12; 41:4). He has internalized God’s law: the torah resides in his heart (40:7; cf. 37:31). He therefore truly delights to do God’s will, as did Paul (Rom 7:7-25). David appears to speak in persona in Psalm 40:6-8: Jesus David’s greater descendant, came into the world in a body prepared for him to do God’s will (Heb 10:1-10). David takes comfort in his merciful consideration of the poor (Psalm 41:1-3, 17): “Blessed are the merciful, for they shall receive mercy” (Matt 5:7). The way to blessing remains meditating upon torah (1:1), which drives us to seek forgiveness (32:1-2) and refuge in God (34:8) and his Christ (2:12) through faith (40:4) and inspires similar mercy toward others (41:1-3).
Psalm 38: The Prayer of a Sorrowing Sinner [ET]
Psalm 39: Relent, Remit, and Refresh Us For Our Few Days [SS, ET]
Psalm 40: Brought Up From The Pit To Do God's Will [ET]
Psalm 41: The Christ's Response To The Betrayal Of A Friend [ET]
In Book 2, the proclamation of the Davidic Christ established in Zion is deliberately and intentionally sent out to the nations, who are summoned to worship Yahweh the God of Israel and to submit to his Christ. Unlike Book 1, this collection of Psalms tends to avoid God's personal name, Yahweh (used only 32 times in Book 2 compared to 278 times in Book 1), Yahweh: using other words for God , particularly 'elohim (198 times: see David R. Jackson, Songs of Hope, p. 9). The individual songs that constitute Book 2 were probably compiled and colated in Babylonian exile, and older Davidic songs were probably added to new ones composed later. Psalms 42-49 were composed by "the sons of Korah", a Levitical family with a notorious forefather; Psalm 50 by Asaph, a contemporary of David, and Psalms 51-65, 69-71 by David himself. The others are strictly anonymous except for Psalm 72, which is by Solomon.
These three Psalms of the sons of Korah reflect situations of suffering. In Psalms 42-43 the Psalmist is downcast because he can no longer gather with God's people at the appointed meeting place. In Psalm 44 we observe the faithful Israelite suffering with the faithless.
Psalms 42-43: Songs Of A Downcast Soul [ET]
Psalm 44: When God Seems Against Our Armies [ET]
Psalm 45: A Love Song For The King's Wedding [ET]
Psalm 46: God Of Armies Is With Us [ET]
Psalm 47: A Crowd's Song of Victory [ET]
Psalm 48: Praise the God of Zion [ET]
Psalm 49: The Reality of Death [ET]
Psalm 50: Everything Belongs to Me! [ET]
Psalm 51: Blot Out My Transgressions [ET]
Psalm 52: Imprecation of Doeg the Edomite [ET]
Psalm 53: An Insight from Illness [ET]
Psalm 54: When Strangers Rise Up [ET]
Psalm 55: Roll Your Burden on Yahweh [ET]
Psalm 57: A Song from a Cave [ET]
Psalm 58: Yahweh's Vengeance [ET]
Psalm 59: Faith When You Are Surrounded [ET]
Psalm 60: A Song For Joab's Victory Over Edom [ET]
Psalm 61: Lead Me To The Rock Higher Than Me [ET]
Psalm 62: My Soul Is Silent Toward God My Salvation [ET]
Psalm 63: A Cry From The Wilderness [ET]
Psalm 64: The Christ On The End Of His Enemies [ET]
Psalm 65: God's Blessings On Creation And Covering Sin [ET]
Psalm 66: In Praise Of The Glorious And Sovereign God [ET]
Psalm 67: A Priestly Blessing For The People [ET]
Psalm 68: Yahweh, Israel's Mighty Warrior [ET]
Psalms 69-71 are written by David and emerge from the circumstances of his struggles during his later days. Psalm 72, written by Solomon, express the hope that the monarchy will continue beyond David himself through his chosen son and heir.
Psalm 69: A Request: Save Your Drowning Messiah [ET]
Psalm 70: A Request For Deliverance [ET]
Psalm 71: The Prayer Of A Middle-Aged Christ [ET]
Psalm 72: The Song of Solomon Expressing The Faith Of His Father [ET]
Psalm 73: Jealous of the Wicked [ET, SS]
Psalm 74: How long will they burn Yahweh's dwelling place [ET]
Psalm 75: Yahweh will chop off the horn of the wicked, raise that of the righteous [ET]
Psalm 76: God Ends War in Jerusalem [ET]
Psalm 77: Remembering God's Past Wonder [ET]
Psalm 78: God's Salvation and Rejection of his People [ET]
Psalm 79: Lament for the Destruction of Jerusalem [ET]
Psalm 80: Yahweh, Bring Back Your Humbled People [ET]
Psalm 81: Yahweh's Lament for and Promises to Israel [ET]
Psalm 82: God the True Judge In Israel [ET]
Psalm 83: God Called Upon Against Assyria and her Allies [ET]
Psalm 84: Longing For Yahweh's House [SS, ET]
Psalm 85: Yahweh Returns A Captive; The Faithful Return to Him [ET]
Psalm 86: A Prayer of David of Praise and for Salvation [ET]
Psalm 87: Children Again Will Be Born in Zion [ET]
Psalm 88: Darkness My Friend [ET]
Psalm 89: Trusting God's Promise For Messiah In The Real World of Exile [ET, IL]
Psalm 90: Teach Us To Number Our Days [ET, SS]
Psalm 91: Yahweh Will Save The Serpent Crusher [ET]
Psalm 92: Grey Heads Bearing Fruit: A Song For the Sabbath [ET]
Psalm 93: Yahweh Rules The Waters [ET]
Psalm 94: The Upright's Complaint And Consolation [ET]
Psalm 95: A Call To Worship, A Word Of Warning [ET]
Psalm 96: A New Song In Praise Of King Yahweh [ET]
Psalm 97: Yahweh The Ruler Over All [ET]
Psalm 98: Sing For The Righteous King And Coming Judge [SS, ET]
Psalm 99: Raise Up Yahweh Our God [ET]
Psalm 100: A Short Song of Praise [ET]
Psalm 101: David's Song About Covenant Faithfulness and Judgement [ET]
Psalm 102: The Complaint And Praises Of A Distressed Believer [ET]
Psalm 103: The Christ’s Song of Love, Forgiveness, and Life Eternal [ET, SS]
Psalm 104: Praise to the Creator [ET]
Psalm 105: Yahweh's Faithfulness to and History with Israel [ET]
Psalm 106
Psalm 107
Psalm 108
Psalm 109
Psalm 110
Psalm 111
Psalm 112
Psalm 113
Psalm 114
Psalm 115
Psalm 116
Psalm 117
Psalm 118
Psalm 119
Psalm 120: A Refugee's Prayer About Liars & Warmongers [ET, IL]
Psalm 121: Look To The End, Help Promised Among The Way [ET, IL]
Psalm 122: David's Example of Pilgrimage To Jerusalem; His Prayer For Its Peace [ET, IL]
Psalm 123: A Plea For Grace After Living With Contempt [ET, IL]
Psalm 124: David's Testimony: Yahweh Our Helper Has Preserved Us [ET, IL]
Psalm 125: The Saints Perseverance: Illustrated, Requested, Enabled By Warning [ET, IL]
Psalm 126: The Captives' Return And Restoration Of Their Fortunes [ET, IL]
Psalm 127: Solomon's Song of Ascent: Yahweh Builds The House; Children Are His Reward [ET, IL]
Psalm 128
Psalm 129: The Haters Won't Win [ET, IL]
Psalm 130: With You Is Forgiveness So You Are Feared [ET, IL]
Psalm 131: A Still, Weaned Child [ET, IL]
Psalm 132: Yahweh, Because of David [ET, IL]
Psalm 133: Brothers Getting On is the Good Oil [ET, IL]
Psalm 134: Night-Shift Praises [ET, IL]
Psalm 135: Praise Yahweh, The Greatest [ET, IL]
Psalm 136: Yahweh's Covenant Faithfulness Is Forever [ET, IL]
Psalm 137: Vengeance Sought At The Rivers Of Babylon [ET, IL]
Psalm 138: David's Wholehearted Praise [ET, IL]
Psalm 139: David's Confidence: Yahweh Knows Me [ET, IL]
Psalm 140: David Seeks Deliverance From The Traps Of The Wicked [ET, IL]
Psalm 141: David's Evening Prayer: Preserve Me From Evildoing And Evildoers [ET, IL]
Psalm 142: David's Cry For Help From The Cave [ET, IL]
Psalm 143: David's Prayer For Vindication As One Of The Unrighteous [ET, IL]
Psalm 144: By David: Yahweh, David's Protector and Provider of Prosperity [ET, IL]
Psalm 145: An Acrostic Song Of Praise By David [ET, IL]
Psalm 146: Praise Yahweh, The Only Righteous Ruler, Not Human Princes [ET, IL]
Psalm 147: Praise Yahweh For Rebuilding And Providing For Jerusalem [ET, IL]
Psalm 148: Heaven And Earth Praise Yahweh High Above; And The Horn [ET, IL]
Psalm 149: The Saints Executing Vengeance Praises Yahweh [ET, IL]
Psalm 150: The End Of Everything With Breath And Without: To Praise Yah! [ET, IL]
Acrostic poem. An (alphabetical) acrostic creates a sequence with the first letter of the first word of a line, colon, or stanza in the Hebrew. The classic example is Psalm 119. Psalms 9-10, 25, 34, and 37 are ‘irregular’, meaning that while they clearly are alphabetical, they depart from strict alphabetical order and evidence uneven units of text.
Afflicted. See Poor.
Angel of the LORD. Yahweh’s powerful messenger speaking and acting on his behalf (34:7, 35:6-7). Sometimes identified with God himself (e.g., Gen 31:13), he intervenes in important salvation-historical circumstances (e.g., Gen 16:7-11; 22:10-18; Exod 2:3; Num 20:16). He punished Israel because of David’s census, through which the temple site was chosen (2 Samuel 24; 1 Chronicles 21). See also Temple.
Anointed. Renders Hebrew, mashiakh, ‘Messiah’ (2:2; 18:50; 20:6, 28:8; cf. 23:5). In Greek is translated, Christos, ‘Christ’. Israel’s kings (and priests) were anointed to the office with oil poured over their heads. After the Babylonian exile, ‘Messiah’ referred to David’s promised descendant who would establish God’s end-time kingdom (Dan 9:25-26). See also King, Shepherd, Servant of the LORD, Son of God.
Ark of the Covenant. An ornate gold-plated wooden box containing Yahweh’s testimony, the Ten Commandments inscribed on two tablets by God himself (Exodus 25). In its earliest times it also contained two other testimonies—a jar of manna and Aaron’s staff that budded (Heb 9:4; cf. Exod 16:32-36; Num 17:1-11)—but by Solomon’s day they were no longer housed there (1 Kgs 8:9; 2 Chron 5:10). The ark represented King Yahweh’s throne, where he met Israel (Exod 30:6; Num 7:89) “in the cloud over the mercy seat” (Lev 16:2), and from where he ruled and provided merciful judgements. It was carried with poles, on the pattern of a retinue bearing a seated monarch. Its lid, the ‘mercy seat’, bore upon either end two golden winged cherubim facing each other. Their posture suggested that Yahweh was too holy to look upon. The ark bore no actual seat or divine image, because Yahweh is spirit, has no body, permits no idol, dwells in heaven, and rules by his word. The ark normally resided in the tabernacle (and later, Solomon’s temple) in the Most Holy Place behind the veil (Exod 26:31). Beside it was placed the Book of the Law (Deut 31:24-26). In Israel’s desert travels it was carried before the people by the Levitical Priests (Num 10:33-36; Deut 10:8; 31:9; Josh 3:3-6). It sometimes accompanied Israel’s army (1 Samuel 4; 14:18). David, after he settled in Zion, brought the ark to himself, initially housing it in a tent (not the tabernacle) erected for it (2 Samuel 6; 7:2; 1 Chronicles 13, 15-16; 17:1; 2 Chron 8:11). At this time, some Levitical priests and singers served before the ark in Jerusalem, while others served at the tabernacle at Gibeon (1 Chron 16:37-43). When Solomon completed the temple, the ark along with the “tent of meeting” was relocated from Zion to the temple mount. The ark appears to have been lost five years after Solomon’s death (1 Kgs 14:25-26). The second temple, in which Jesus taught, had no ark in the Most Holy Place. Also called, ‘Ark of the Testimony’ or ‘Ark of the LORD’. See also Covenant, Temple, Testimony.
Blameless. See Integrity.
Blessed, blessing, bless, blessedness. The ‘gateway’ blessings of Psalms 1:1 and 2:12 are expressed by the noun, ’ashre (always in the plural), meaning ‘happy’, ‘blessed’, as are those in Psalm 32:1-2; 33:12; 34:8; 40:4; 41:1. The noun berakah (3:8; 21:3, 6; 24:5; 37:26; 41:13) means the wish for, or delivery of, some benefit’, and is also translated, ‘blessing’. The related verb barak is translated ‘to bless’ (5:12; 10:3; 16:7; 18:46; 26:12; 28:6, 9; 29:11; 31:21; 34:1; 37:22).
Buckler. See Shield.
Children of man, mankind. The ESV’s rendering of the phrase more literally translated, ‘the sons of Adam’ (beney ’adam). It emphasizes the solidarity of all humanity, making explicit our common descent from the first man, Adam (31:19). Sadly, we are vile, vicious, and tragically vulnerable (57:4; cf. 12:1-2, 8; 14:1-2). Nevertheless, we still enjoy God’s oversight, government, and care (11:4; 21:10; 33:13-15; 36:7). See also Man, Son of man.
Choirmaster. In the headings of many psalms as part of a dedication to the director of music, a Levite appointed and skilled for this task, to use the Psalm in sanctuary worship.
Christ. See Anointed.
Commandment. An order or command to be kept, obeyed, and taught (mitzvah: 19:8; cf. 78:5-7).
Covenant. A formal and legal solemnisation of promises made in a relationship between two or more parties (Heb. berith, Greek, diatheke). Covenants could be unilateral or bilateral, and their oaths were sealed with imprecations. God made several covenants in the Old Testament period (Rom 9:4). Those with Abraham and the nation Israel held out the promise of inheriting land, descendants, protection, and prosperity (Genesis 12:1-3; 15; 17; Deuteronomy 28). Yahweh’s conditional covenant with Israel through Moses (Exodus 19-31) co-existed with his earlier unconditional covenant with Abraham (Gal 3:15-18). If Israel obeyed the law of Moses, she would be a kingdom of priests and holy nation (Exod 19:5-6). Yahweh’s later unilateral and unconditional promise to David (2 Samuel 7; cf. Psalm 89:32-37), subsequently called a covenant (e.g., 2 Sam 23:5; Psalm 89:3-4, 28, 34), uses covenant language of “father” and “son” (Psalm 2:7), typical of a great king and his vassal. An elaboration of the covenant with Abraham, it created the Davidic dynasty and the expectation of David’s greater Son ruling on an eternal throne (e.g., Psalm 110). See also Anointed, Imprecation, King, Law, Servant of the LORD, Son of God, Steadfast love.
Drink offering. In Israel’s sacrificial system, an offering of wine, part of which was poured onto the altar (or in the holy place) to complete a stipulated animal sacrifice (Num 15:1-10; 28:1-8), and the rest given to the priest. Also called a ‘libation’. By contrast, drink offerings to foreign gods were of blood (16:4) and a snare to Israel and Judah (Isa 57:6; Jer 7:18; 44:15-19; Ezek 20:28). See also Sacrifice.
Earth. See Land.
Evil. This word translates the Hebrew masculine noun and adjective, ra‘ (7:4, 9; 23:4; 34:13-14, 16; 37:27), and the feminine noun and adjective, ra‘ah (15:3; 21:1; 28:3; 35:4, 12; 37:19; 38:20; 40:12), which have a broad range of meanings, including bad, sad, evil, malignant, painful, disaster, adversity, injury, or calamity. As an abstract adjective, ra‘ is found in parallel with ‘wickedness’ (5:4; 36:4) and as a substantive adjective, is rendered ‘evildoer’ in parallel with ‘the wicked’ (10:15). The related verb is ra‘a‘ (37:8-9), and as a substantive participle, is rendered ‘evildoer’ (22:16; 26:5; 27:2; 37:1).
Face of God. A metaphor usually describing God’s saving favour toward and gracious presence with his people. David frequently asked God to show his face and not hide it (4:6; 13:1; 33:24; 27:9; 31:16). Seeking and seeing Yahweh’s face is the hope of the righteous (11:7; 17:15; 24:6; 27:8). Elsewhere, when God hides his face, David is dismayed (30:7). However, since Yahweh’s face is also set against those who do evil (34:16), David under conviction of sin (39:12) wants God to hide his face from him. See also Grace.
Fear of the LORD. The basic posture of God’s servant and worshipper (5:7; 15:4; 19:9; 22:23, 25), being awe, seriousness, and respect, as children have for their father (103:13), issuing in a careful adherence to his instructions and fear of disobeying them, which keeps people from sinning (34:11-18). It is the beginning of wisdom (111:10), in which the wicked do not share (36:1). It co-exists with ‘rejoicing’ (2:11), “friendship” (25:14), “praise” (22:23), “trust” (40:3), and a knowledge of Yahweh’s “goodness” and “steadfast love” (5:7; 31:19; 33:18). The nations are invited to join Israel in it (2:11; 33:8).
Flutes. Bored wind or pipe instruments producing sound by players blowing across an opening (Heb. nekhilah: Psalm 5 heading).
Forgive, forgiveness. Pardon; God’s decision to cover over guilt, to not remember nor count sin against someone; to not condemn a guilty person (25:7, 11, 18; 32:1-2, 5; 34:22; 38:18; 39:8; 40:12). Forgiveness is an outworking of God’s grace, mercy, goodness, and commitment to his people (25:6-7, 16; 32:10; 41:4). It comes to the person who trusts and hope in him (32:10; 40:4). The path to forgiveness is confessing sin to God (31:10; 32:5-6). David’s confession and pleas for forgiveness are explicit from Psalm 25 onward in Book One. See also Iniquity, Redeem, Sin, Steadfast love.
Gittith, according to the. In the Psalm 8 heading, no one knows what this means. Suggestions include a musical instrument, a tempo, melody, or the occasion the Psalm was to be used.
Godly. Those faithful and loyal to God’s covenant (4:3; 12:1; 32:6), rendering Hebrew adjective khasid, (cf. related noun khesed). See also Covenant, Saints, Steadfast love.
Grace, be gracious, generous. ‘Grace’ expresses the idea of “without cause” (cf. Heb. adverb, khinnam: e.g., Gen 29:15; Psalm 35:7, 19). No basis for God’s kindness is found in the person who benefits. The ESV renders the verb khanan with ‘be gracious’ (Psalm 4:1; 6:2; 9:13; 25:16; 26:11; 27:7; 31:9; 41:4, 10) or ‘merciful’ (Psalm 30:10), and its participle with ‘generous’ (37:21, 26). The related noun is khen, ‘grace, favour’ (Psalm 45:2; 84:11). See also Steadfast love.
Groan, groaning. Renders several words. The noun she’agah and related verb sha’ag properly describe the roaring of a lion (e.g., Job 4:10; Psalm 104:21), but the noun is also used of human cries in distress and emotional pain (22:1; 32:3); likewise, the verb, of the cries of distressed humans (38:8) and attacking enemies (22:13, 74:4). The noun hagiyg rendered ‘groaning’ (5:1) denotes a whisper, murmur, or muse (39:3). The noun ’anaqah, rendered ‘groan’, denotes a cry in distress, particularly of the needy (12:5) or prisoner (79:11, 102:20). A different noun, ‘anakhah, is rendered ‘groaning’ (102:5), ‘moaning’ (6:6), and ‘sighing’ (31:10, 38:9). It is related to grief, sorrow (Isa 35:10; 51:11), and fainting (Jer 45:3; Lam 1:22). See also Meditate, Shout for joy.
Guest. See Sojourner.
Heading. The first line of many Psalms, which are part of the God-inspired text, that might attribute the Psalm to its composer, provide a dedication to a person to use the Psalm such as the choirmaster, a description of the composition, a musical direction such as outlining the type of instruments for which it was written, or an historical introduction. See also Choirmaster, Flutes, Gittith, Higgaion, Historical introduction, Lyre, Maskil, Miktam, Sheminith, Shiggaion, Stringed instruments.
Heavenly beings. The ESV uses this interpretive phrase to render two different expressions. In Psalm 8:5, it renders the normal Hebrew word for “God”, ’elohim, which is usually a plural of majesty, referring to the one God. In 8:5 it probably means ‘God’. ’Elohim can sometimes refer to ‘gods’, a normal plural. The LXX’s interpretative translation used the word for “angels”, taking it to mean plural, ‘gods’, and identifying them as created angelic beings. Hebrews 2:5 quotes the LXX. In its occurrence in ESV Psalm 29:1 (and 89:6), a more literal translation would be “sons of gods” (beney ’elim). The LXX assumes that the noun ’elim is equivalent to ’elohim, rendering it ‘sons of God’ (singular). Sometimes ‘sons of ’elohim’ refers to angels (Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7). But ’elim more likely means ‘gods’, as it does elsewhere (Exod 15:11; Job 41:25; Dan 11:36). In 29:1, it probably refers to Canaanite deities.
Higgaion. In Psalm 9:16 it probably marks a musical or performance direction (cf. 92:4), for perhaps: (1) loud, resounding music; (2) soft music; (3) low pitched, rumbling music; (4) a pause for meditation, private thought (cf. 19:15). The last is most likely. See also Meditate.
Historical introduction. Appearing at the head of thirteen Psalms in the Psalter (in Book One, Psalms 3, 7, 18, 34), it gives the occasion or historical context of the Psalm’s composition. Most Psalms do not have them; the genius of the Psalms is that things written for a particular situation have wide-ranging applicability.
Horn of salvation. A ram or ox uses its horn to gore and thus ‘horn’ (18:2; cf. 92:10) became a metaphor for power and strength (Luke 1:69).
House of Yahweh. See Tabernacle, Temple.
Humble. See Poor.
Imprecation. Calling upon God to punish and bring calamity upon someone. The ‘imprecatory psalms’ are those that curse the enemies of Yahweh and his people (e.g., 5:10; 6:10; 7:9; 10:2, 15; 11:5-6; 12:3; 28:4-5; 31:17-18; 35:3-8, 26; 40:14-15). Jesus and Paul also utter imprecations (Matt 23:13; 26:24; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 6:12; 2 Tim 4:14-15).
Inheritance, inherit. An allotment, apportionment, or share of property as a possession, particularly land. ‘Inheritance’ renders the noun nakhalah (Psalm 37:18) and ‘inherit’ the verb yarash (25:13; 37:9, 11, 22, 29, 34), meaning to take possession. David’s appeals that Israel is Yahweh’s ‘inheritance’ (28:9; 33:12), and Yahweh is David’s (16:5-6). ‘The nations’ are the Messiah’s ‘heritage’, i.e., inheritance (2:8). See also Nations, Portion.
Iniquity. Guilt, crime. The ESV renders the Hebrew noun ‘avon variously as ‘iniquity’ (10:7; 31:10; 32:2; 36:2; 38:4; 41:6), ‘guilt’ (18:23; 25:11; 32:5), ‘sin’ (39:11), and ‘evil’ (7:14). It emphasises the objective guilt or liability to punishment that wrongdoing brings (e.g., Lev 5:1), thus, ‘punishment for iniquity’ (e.g., Gen 4:13). Those who do ‘avon are ‘workers of iniquity’ (5:5; 6:8; 14:4; 36:12; 37:1), in the ESV also rendered ‘evildoers’ or ‘workers of evil’. ‘Iniquity’ is described as a heavy burden (38:4) that overtakes a person (40:12) and is to be hated (36:2). It is used with words for ‘transgression’ (89:32), ‘sin’ (32:5; 38:18), and ‘evil’ (40:12). The word family of ’asham is also translated ‘guilt’, the verb rendered ‘to bear guilt’ (5:10) or ‘condemn’ (34:22-23), and the noun, ‘guilty ways’ (68:21). See also Sin, Transgress, Wicked.
Integrity. This renders the Hebrew noun, tom (7:8; 25:21; 26:1, 11; 41:12), which means perfection, completeness, being whole and uncompromised, and so innocent. The adjectives tamim and tam are rendered ‘blameless’ (15:2; 18:23, 25, 32; 37:18, 37), and mean complete, whole, sound, perfect. The verb tamam, rendered ‘be blameless’ (19:13), means to complete, finish. See also Righteousness, Uprightness.
Interest. A fee charged on loans of money, food, or anything else (Hebrew, neshek, something ‘bitten off’: 15:5). Charging a fellow Israelite interest was banned (Exod 22:25; Lev 25:35-37), though foreigners could be charged interest (Deut 23:19-20). Profiting from a poor brother Israelite needing to borrow was sinful greed (Prov 28:8). Also called ‘usury’. See also Poor.
Judge, judgement. In the ESV, these render two Hebrew word families. The first is the verb shaphat (‘to judge’: 7:8; 9:8, 19; 10:18), the participle shophet (‘a judge’: 7:11; ‘judging’: 9:4), and the related noun mishpat (judgement: 1:5; 7:6; 9:7, 16; 10:5; 18:22; 19:9; 36:6; cf. “just cause”: 9:4; “vindication”: 35:23). There they refer to the acts, processes, or results of judging. Mishpat also can mean ‘justice’, that is, righteous judgement (25:9; 33:5; 37:28, 30). The second is the less frequent verb and noun din (7:8; 9:4, 8). See also Righteous.
King. Yahweh, the LORD God, is the creator and ruler of the cosmos, and thus the true and eternal king (Heb. melek, 5:2; 10:16; 29:10). Yahweh is Israel’s warrior king, mighty in battle (24:7-10). Israel’s human king is Yahweh’s ‘anointed’* (2:2, 6; 18:50) but also titled ‘king’ in a secondary sense (e.g., 2:2; 21:7). King David (and his seed) is also called ‘Son of God’, reflecting the covenant God made with him. However, the human king is nothing, and the title empty, without King Yahweh’s favour and sovereign protection (18:50; 20:9; 21:1; 33:13-17). See also Anointed, Covenant, Servant of the LORD, Shepherd, Son of God.
Lament. An expression (often verbal, including in song) of grief, sorrow, mourning, sadness, or complaint, which might be caused by bereavement, disaster or other distressing situation, suffering, sickness, weakness, the threat of enemies or death, or for sin. In Psalm 35:14 ESV, ‘lament’ translates the Hebrew adjective ’abēl. Such expressions of grief and complaint frequently co-exist with and eventually (almost always) resolve and issue in trust and praise. Among the many examples in Book 1 are Psalms 6, 10, 13, 22, 35, 38. See also Praise.
Land, earth. The ESV translates the Hebrew noun ’eretz as either ‘land’ or ‘earth’, depending on context. It occasionally means ‘earth’ as soil or dirt (10:18; cf. ’adamah, ‘ground’: Gen 2:6; Psalm 83:10), but almost always refers to the land surface of the planet, in whole or part, underneath the heavens or sky (8:1, 9; 18:7; 19:4), the place where humans and animals live (21:10; 22:29; 33:5, 14, 16). It might refer to life above ground, as opposed to under it, in sheol (27:13). Importantly, ’eretz can refer to the land or country of Israel (10:16; 16:13; 25:13; 35:20; 37:3, 9, 11, 22, 34; 41:2), as well as that of ‘the nations’ (2:2, 10). By metonymy it can refer to the nations or people who live on the earth (2:8; 22:27; 33:8). See also Nations, Peoples, World.
Law. Instruction, direction (Heb. torah: Psalm 1:2; 19:7; 37:31; 40:8). Depending on context, torah might describe a code of law (the law of Moses, summarized by the ten commandments), a body of teaching, or the five books of Moses, Genesis to Deuteronomy. The ‘law of the LORD’ is God’s kind instruction that expresses his character, reflects his wisdom in creation thereby teaching humans how to live in God’s world, and reveals his plan to bless the world through Israel. It offers life to the person keeping it, but curses for the disobedient (Lev 18:1-5; Deut 27:26; Rom 10:5; Gal 3:10-12). See also Covenant, Precept, Rules, Testimony.
LORD, Lord. In English Bibles, ‘LORD’ (capitalized) translates God’s personal name, ‘Yahweh’. This follows the Jewish convention that avoided saying the divine name. The Hebrew Bible generally indicates that the divine name is to be read as ’adonay, meaning, ‘my Lord’, with the singular pronoun. However, the word for ‘Lord’ (note the case), ’adon, is also a distinct word used in the Old Testament (e.g., 16:2). Both the words for ‘LORD’ and ‘Lord’ are used in the phrase, “O LORD, our Lord” (8:1, 9; cf. 35:22): the first word tells us who God is, giving his personal name; the second gives his function in relation to us, our Lord and master (here transliterated ’adonenu with the plural pronoun). See also Yahweh.
LORD of Hosts. A title (24:10) meaning ‘Yahweh of armies’. Yahweh is Israel’s warrior king (24:8). Hosts are ‘armies’ (33:6; 136:15; 148:2), whether of angels or men, metaphorical or not.
LXX. See Septuagint.
Lyre. Hebrew, kinnor. A wooden stringed instrument played with the hand (1 Sam 16:23; 2 Chron 5:12). It could be carried and presumably played while standing and walking (1 Sam 10:5; 137:2). It was an accompaniment instrument played by singers who prophesied and/or sung songs (1 Kgs 10:12; 1 Chron 13:8; 15:16; 25:1, 3; 2 Chron 9:1; Neh 12:27). See also Sheminith, Stringed instruments.
Man, men. The noun ’ish means a male human, or husband, but it can apply to any human regardless of gender, a person (e.g., 1:1; 18:48; 22:6; 25:12; 26:9; 31:20; 34:12; 37:7, 37; 38:14; 39:6, 11). The related feminine noun, ’ishah, means woman, wife (Gen 2:22-23). The word ’enosh (8:4; 9:19-20; 10:18) emphasises man as mortal, frail, and of the earth. The word ’adam (8:4; 17:4; 32:2; 36:6; 39:5, 11), reminds us of the first man, Adam, that he was made from the ground (’adamah), placed over the animals, and his descendants share a common human predicament. The plural noun metiym means men as males (Deut 2:34; Isa 3:23; Psalm 105:12; cf. 17:14; 26:4). The noun gebar/geber (18:25; 34:8; 37:23; 40:4) emphasises strength, a masculine, manly man distinguished from women and children (Exod 10:11, 12:37, 22:5; Judges 5:30; Psalm 127:5). The related adjective gibbor (19:5; 33:16) refers to a mighty or powerful man, a warrior. The ESV translates the phrase, beney ’ish (literally, ‘sons of (a) man’), as ‘men’ (4:2). See also Children of man.
Maskil. This noun appears in the headings of thirteen Psalms (only Psalm 32 in book one). The same form, a related participle of sakal, means understanding, having insight, prudence, and discernment (Psalm 14:2). While some think maskil is a musical term, referring perhaps to a melody requiring great skill, it probably describes a teaching or wisdom song that gives understanding and instruction. The verb sakal is used of the ‘wise’ response of the earth’s kings to the Christ (2:10-11) or the wise instruction about forgiveness that David offers from his own experience (32:8-10). A wise person also cares about the poor (41:1) but the wicked have “no knowledge” (14:4) and are not wise (36:3).
Meditate, meditation. Mulling over; thinking out loud to oneself; ‘meditate’ translates the verb, hagah (Psalm 1:2), which involves thinking about, wrestling with, and seeking to apply God’s torah. It can also denote ‘plotting’ (2:1), a bad type of meditating (38:12). Hagah has a wide range of meaning, including to muse, speak, utter (35:28, 37:30), chatter, murmur, groan, or moan. Good meditating thus differs from both wicked scheming and the Eastern idea of emptying one’s mind. The cognate noun, higgayon, means meditation or thoughts (19:14), and is also a direction for playing stringed instruments (92:3). See also Groan, Higgaion.
Mercy, merciful. See Grace, be gracious.
Miktam. Probably, an engraving (headings to Psalm 16, 56-60). The related verb means to carve or engrave, and thus inscribe indelibly.
Messiah. See Anointed.
Nations. Peoples organised into political units such as kingdoms (Hebrew, goyim). Because of sinfulness, a nation becomes a rival locus of loyalty, opposing Yahweh and his Christ, though ‘the nations’ are the Messiah’s inheritance (2:1-2, 8-9; 9:5, 15, 17, 19, 20; 10:16; 18:43, 49; 22:27-28; 33:10, 12). See also Peoples, World.
Needy. The materially poor, translating adjective ’ebyon (Psalm 9:18; 12:5; 35:10; 37:14). They might have sold themselves into slavery or become hired workers, or borrow or glean fields to survive (Exod 23:11; Deut 15:7-18; 24:14-15). ‘The needy’ is extended to include the ‘poor in spirit’ (Psalm 40:17). Included are ‘the oppressed’ (dak: 9:9; 10:18, those ‘crushed’ or ‘distressed’) and ‘the helpless’ (khelekah: 10:8, 10, 14). ‘The fatherless’ (yathom: Psalm 10:14; 18) are those without the protection and support of a breadwinner. See also Poor.
Peoples. Social and ethnic groups, clans and tribes sharing a common ancestry and loyalty: in parallel with ‘nations’. It translates two plural nouns, le’ummim (Psalm 2:1; 7:7; 9:8) and ‘ammim (7:8; 9:11; 18:47; 33:10). See also Nations, World.
Poor. Vulnerable people needing assistance to obtain the necessities of life (Deut 15:11). In the ESV, ‘afflicted’ and ‘poor’ render the noun ‘anaw and its passive form ‘ani (9:12, 18; 10:2, 9, 12, 17; 12:5; 14:6; 22:26, 34:6; 35:10; 37:14). Sometimes translated ‘affliction’ (9:13). It can refer to physical or emotional suffering (22:24; 25:16; 40:17). As a substantive, it includes day-labourers (Deut 24:14), those gleaning fields (Lev 19:10; 23:22), orphans, widows, and refugees. Traditionally translated ‘meek’ (37:11) or ‘humble’ (18:27; 25:9; 34:2). The related verb is ‘anah, ‘to afflict’ (with fasting: 35:13). The word dal (41:2) denotes the materially poor in contrast with the wealthy (Ruth 3:10). See also Needy.
Portion. A share, inheritance, or allocation, of land (Gen 31:14; Josh 15:13) or other thing, rendering the noun kheleq. David’s “portion” (kheleq) is Yahweh (16:5) while worldly people have their “portion” (kheleq) “in this life” (17:14). “Portion” also renders menath: the “portion” of the wicked’s cup is the terrible punishment of fire, sulfur, and scorching wind (11:6; cf. 63:10). See also Inheritance.
Praise. Verbal contribution that extolls the perfections of someone or something. The Hebrew noun tehillah (9:14; 22:3, 25; 33:1; 34:1; 35:28) can mean ‘praise’, especially that conveyed through song (33:1-3; 40:3). The verb halal (used in the phrase ‘Hallelujah’, meaning ‘praise Yahweh’) can mean ‘to praise’ (18:3; 22:22-23, 26; 35:18) or ‘to boast’ (5:5; 10:3; 34:2). See also Lament, Shout for joy.
Precepts. Something appointed, ordered, directed, or charged (Heb. piqqudim: 19:8), a word only found in the Psalms. See also Law.
Psalm. A song, a musical composition; an anglicization of the Greek word psalmos, which in turn translates the Hebrew noun mizmor (frequently in Psalm headings). Mizmor means music, which need not include singing. The related verb, zamar, means to make music, that is, instrumental music. The Greek term psalmos originally referred to music played on stringed instruments, but came to mean music more broadly. See also Stringed instruments.
Psalter. The Psalms as a collection, the anthology of 150 songs divided into five books.
Ransom. See Redeem.
Redeem, redeemer. To buy or win back someone or something, once owned and safe, but in danger or tragically lost, by paying a price. The idea is expressed by two words, both in Psalm 69:18. The first is the verb, padah, also rendered ‘ransom’ (25:22; 26:11; 31:5; 34:22). It emphasizes paying a costly price (e.g., Exod 13:11-15; Num 18:15-16; Psalm 49:7-9). The second is ga’al (Psalm 19:14). It means acting as a kinsman by rescuing family members in difficulty (e.g., Lev 25:25-27; Ruth 2-4) or executing retribution on their behalf (‘the goel of blood’: Num 35:9-29). Both words also describe God’s rescue of Israel from Egypt (e.g., Exod 6:6; Deut 7:8) and David’s hope of future salvation for himself and his people.
Refuge. Protection or shelter from danger. It renders the verb khasah (17:7) and noun ma‘otz (28:8; 31:4). Refuge is offered to the nations in the Messiah (2:12) and for the saints in Yahweh (5:11; 7:1; 11:1; 14:6; 16:1-2; 18:2; 25:20; 31:1, 19; 34:8, 22; 37:40). Indeed, all “the children of mankind take refuge in the shadow of [Yahweh’s] wings” (36:7). It includes having protection ‘spread over’ someone or being covered (5:11). Images include a bird flying to a high mountain (11:1), someone hiding in, behind, or standing upon, a “rock” (18:2; 31:2), a “fortress” or “stronghold” (18:2; 31:2), or a “shield” (18:2, 30). See also Rock, Shield, Stronghold.
Righteous, Righteousness. ‘The righteous’ serve God in contrast with ‘the wicked’, who do not (Mal 3:18; Hab 1:13). They conform to the norm of Yahweh’s torah; not merely hearing but doing it (Deut 6:20-25; 24:13). Because of universal sin, no human is ‘absolutely’ righteous (Psalm 14:2-3), but those trusting God are considered righteous: their sin is not counted against them and Jesus’ righteousness is credited to them as a gift (Psalm 32:2; Rom 4:1-8; 5:16-19). They exercise righteous conduct by pursuing Yahweh’s commands and receiving forgiveness through his provision of atonement (Rom 3:25-26; 1 John 1:8-2:2). They show their ‘relative’ righteousness by their behaviour: “whoever practices righteousness is righteous” (1 John 3:7). When applied to humans, the noun ‘righteousness’ (tsedeq: 7:8; cf. tsedaqah: 33:5) is the quality of one having conformed to or kept God’s law (4:1, 5; 15:2; 18:20, 24; 23:3; 35:27; 37:6). The noun tsedeq can also mean a ‘just cause’ brought by a petitioner (17:1; 35:27). God’s righteousness is his own unswerving commitment to do what is right, just, and good (7:17; cf. vv. 9, 11; 9:4, 8; 35:24, 28). This means both punishing the wicked and saving his people (5:8; 22:31; 24:5; 31:1; 36:6, 10; 40:10). See also Integrity, Judge, Uprightness.
Rock. The two words so rendered—sela‘ (18:2; 31:3; 40:2) and tsur (18:2, 31, 46; 19:14; 27:5; 28:1; 31:2)—denote a steep, rugged cliff or crag, upon which mountain goats dwell or eagles nest for protection. David understood the refuge afforded by rocks and cliffs (1 Sam 23:25; 24:2). See also Refuge, Stronghold.
Rules Judicial findings, case law, judgements establishing legal principles (Heb. mishpatim: 18:22; 19:9). See also Judge, Law.
Sacrifice. Israel’s sacrificial system, established by Leviticus 1-7, was administered by the Aaronic priests at the tabernacle and later the temple in Jerusalem, the place God chose. It was Yahweh’s appointed way to grant forgiveness for sin, restore fellowship within the community, and offer acceptable thanks. By God’s grace, when accompanied by Israel’s trusting obedience, the sacrifices would remove guilt, render Yahweh favourable to hearing Israel’s prayers (Psalm 20:3), and allow worshippers to express their joy with their community. However, it provided no atonement for high-handed, deliberate sin (Num 15:30-31), such as David committed (2 Sam 12:5-10, 14; Psalms 51:16). From the New Testament perspective, Israel’s sacrifices were a symbolic and pedagogical system that created categories to explain the propitiation provided in Jesus Christ. Since the blood of farm animals cannot atone for human sin at a deeper level (Psalm 40:6; Heb 10:4), God in his tolerance passed over the sins of Old Covenant believers until the propitiation he offered in Christ satisfied the divine demand for justice (Rom 3:25-26; Heb 9:15). While Christ’s once and for all sacrifice has put an end to offerings for sin (Heb 9:26; 10:11-14, 18), our Christian service corresponds to the “thank offering” (Lev 7:11-17), sacrifices of fellowship and celebration that followed once propitiation and forgiveness had been effected and granted (e.g., Rom 12:1-2; Phil 2:17; 4:18; Heb 13:15-16; 1 Peter 2:5). See also Drink offering, Forgiveness, Temple.
Saints. The holy ones who fear Yahweh (16:3; 34:9), rendering adjective qedoshim. God separates and possesses his saints for his service (Lev 19:2; 20:22-26). Israel, like her God, is called to be holy in everything. It also renders khasid (30:4; 31:23; 37:28). See also Godly.
Sanctuary. Holy place, God’s house (20:2; 28:2), in which only the Aaronic Priests minister (Exod 15:17). Yahweh’s sanctuary from Moses to David was the tabernacle (Exod 25:8). Thereafter it was Solomon’s temple. See Ark of the Covenant, Temple.
Selah An internal division of a Psalm, although its specific function is unknown. Perhaps it allowed the singers or musicians to pause, marked a musical interlude, or was a direction to increase volume.
Septuagint, LXX. The Greek version of the Old Testament, translated from Hebrew around 200 BC.
Servant of the LORD. A title of honour expressing the covenant obligations of Yahweh’s vassal (Psalm 18, 36 headings; 35:27). First given to Moses (Num 12:6-8; Deut 34:5; Josh 1:1-2), it is frequently used of him thereafter (e.g., Heb 3:5). Joshua his successor is also so described (Josh 24:29; Judg 2:8). While Israel as a whole and individually were Yahweh’s “servants” (Lev 25:55; Isaiah 41:8-10)—and also Yahweh’s prophets and the righteous were individually or as a group so described (e.g., 1 Kings 15:29; 2 Kings 9:7, 36; 10:23; Job 42:7)—the retrospective assignment of the title by later Scriptures upon David reflects both God’s view of him, and his faithfulness to (though not sinlessness in[1]) the fulfilment of Yahweh’s purposes (cf. Acts 13:36). See also Anointed, Covenant, King, Son of God.
Shield. The magen (3:3; 7:10; 18:2, 30, 35; 28:7; 33:20; 35:2), translated “shield”, was a small round shield, while the tzinnah (5:12; 35:2; 1 Kgs 10:16-17), translated “buckler” was a large shield covering the whole body. Both were predominantly defensive weapons. See also Refuge.
Sheminith, according to the. A musical direction best rendered ‘upon the eighth’; perhaps an eight-string lyre with bass notes (Psalms 6, 12 headings; 1 Chron 15:21). See also Lyre, Stringed instruments.
Sheol. The place of the dead; a grave; the underworld, the subterranean domain inhabited by dead people; the state of death (6:5; 9:17; 16:10; 18:5; 30:3; 31:17). Though dark and gloomy, Yahweh is sovereign over and present in sheol (Deut 32:22; Job 26:6; Psalm 139:8; Prov 15:11). While it is the human destiny (Psalm 89:48; Prov 27:20; 30:16), the Psalmist’s confidence is that Yahweh will ransom his people from sheol (Psalm 49:15; cf. Hos 13:14). Rendered as hades in the LXX and the New Testament (e.g., Acts 2:27, 31; Rev 1:18).
Shepherd. Beyond its literal denotation, Israel from the earliest times used the description to refer to Yahweh (Gen 48:15; cf. Psalm 28:9; 80:1; Isaiah 40:11). It was also an image of Israel’s human leader (Num 27:15-23; 2 Sam 5:1-5. 7:7). Jesus’ coming is heralded as that of the long-awaited shepherd of God’s people (Matt 2:6), and he pointedly appropriates and develops the idea (Matt 26:31; John 10:1-6, 11-18), which the later New Testament follows (Heb 13:20, 1 Pet 2:25, 5:4, Rev 7:17). See also Anointed, King, Son of God.
Shiggaion. Perhaps a statement about tempo, a driving song with wild changes of rhythm; or about genre, a type of lament (Psalm 7 heading; Hab 3:1).
Shout for joy. The verb, ranan, denotes a ringing cry, almost always in joy (5:11; 20:5; 32:11; 33:1; 35:27), but once in distress (Lam 2:19); it describes ‘ululation’, a high-pitched tongue trill (cf. Psalm 51:14; 126:2). Another word, the hiphil of verb ru‘a (41:11), means raise a shout or blast with a horn, a war-cry, a shout of triumph, or applause. See also Praise.
Sin, sinner. To miss the mark, go astray, fail, err, fall short, rendering verb, khata’ (4:4; 39:1). ‘Sinner’ translates the adjective khatta’ (25:8; 26:9), while ‘sin’ translates the feminine noun khatta’ah (25:7, 18; 32:1, 5; 38:3) or the masculine noun, khete’ (103:10). The feminine noun can also denote ‘sin offering’ (40:7), one of the five Levitical sacrifices (Leviticus 4). ‘Sin’ is parallel with ‘iniquity’ (38:3-4, 18). ‘Sinner’ is parallel with ‘wicked’ (Psalm 1:1, 5; 104:35) and ‘transgressors’ (51:13). See also Iniquity, Sacrifice, Transgress, Wicked.
Sojourner, sojourn. A foreigner, stranger, traveller, or temporary resident in the land, with no permanent possession or home; opposed to a native Israelite; a class of vulnerable people in ancient Israel (Lev 23:22; Deut 14:29). The couplet “sojourner” (Heb. ger, alien) and “guest” (Heb. toshab, lit. one who resides) occurs in Psalm 39:12: cf. Genesis 23:4. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were sojourners in the promised land before the conquest (e.g., Gen 17:8, 19:9; 23:4), and Moses (Exod 2:22) and Israel were sojourners in Egypt (Gen 15:13; 47:4). Israel was commanded to love the sojourner and guest, treat them fairly, to have one law for the native and the sojourner, and not oppress them, for Israel sojourned in Egypt (Exod 22:21; 23:9; Lev 19:33-34; Num 15:14-16; Deut 10:18-19). David seeks to sojourn in Yahweh’s tent (15:1). When under divine discipline for his guilt, David feels that he is a ‘sojourner’ with Yahweh (39:12). See also Needy, Poor.
Son of God. In Book One, only in Psalm 2. Yahweh describes the Davidic king as “my Son” (Hebrew, ben: 2:7; 2 Sam 7:14). ‘Son’ and ‘servant’ are covenant words, describing a vassal to a great king. The word rendered ‘son’ in 2:12, bar, might be the adjective ‘pure’ (cf. Psalm 24:4), but it is also the Aramaic form for ‘son’ (cf. Prov 31:2). Aramaic was the lingua franca of the Assyrian empire from the tenth century BC, and became the native tongue of Galilean Jews in Jesus’ day. This understanding is rightly adopted by almost all English translations. God calls upon the nations to submit to the ‘Son’ whose title has been graciously translated into the international language of the Ancient Near East. See also Anointed, Covenant, King, Servant of the LORD.
Son of man. An individual human being; a son or descendant of Adam; rendering ben ’adam (8:4), the only instance of the singular word for ‘son’ in the phrase in Book One. It is indefinite, ‘a’ son of man, not ‘the son of man’ (per ESV). Quoted in Hebrews 2:5-9. See also Children of man, Man.
Soul. Renders Hebrew nephesh, which frequently means ‘life’ (7:5; 16:10; 25:13, 20; 26:9; 33:19). Alternatively, a synonym for the whole person, the self (3:2; 10:3; 11:1; 17:13) or the inner person, the centre of human thinking and emotional life; similar to one’s ‘heart’ (6:3; 11:5; 13:2; 19:7; 131:2). So Yahweh’s soul “hates the wicked” (11:5). One’s soul has “desires” (10:3), “distress” (31:7, 9), is troubled (6:3) or “bereft” (35:12), “waits” (33:20), serves and worships (24:4; 25:1), and “boasts” or “rejoices” (34:2; 35:9).
Steadfast love. Commitment, faithfulness, loyalty; sometimes goodness, kindness[2]; renders the Hebrew noun, khesed. Generally rendered ‘mercy’ by the LXX. Yahweh’s khesed extends throughout the earth (Psalm 33:5) and extends to the human race and even the animals God created (36:5-8). Thus, it is not restricted to his covenant people. Covenant expresses rather than limits khesed, though it is most fully expressed toward humans through covenant relationship (cf. 36:10). However, in a covenant context, the rendering ‘loyalty, faithfulness’ is appropriate (5:7; 6:4; 13:5; 17:7; 18:50; 21:7; 25:6-7; 31:7, 16, 21; 32:10; 33:18, 22; 36:10; 40:10-11; cf. NET Bible). For a contemporary example, ‘steadfast love’ is exercised in marriage specifically by ‘faithfulness’. In those contexts, it is sometimes used in parallel to ’emeth, also rendered faithfulness (25:10; 26:3; 40:10-11). See also Covenant, Godly, Grace.
Stringed instruments. Musical instruments creating sounds by striking, plucking, or strumming stretched and tuned strings (Psalms 4, 6, headings). Examples are the lyre (Hebrew, kinnor: 33:2) and harp (Hebrew, nebel: Psalm 92:3), including the ten-string harp (33:2). Strings were made from the small intestines of sheep, and like modern frame harps, they had a soundbox for amplification. See also Lyre.
Stronghold. Inaccessibly high and unassailable ground such as a walled fortress on a mountain (Hebrew, mishggab: 9:9; 18:2). See also Refuge, Rock.
Temple, tabernacle. Yahweh’s dwelling with Israel. From the time of Moses until the early part of Solomon’s reign, Yahweh’s sanctuary was the tabernacle, an ornate moveable tent of two rooms (the ‘Holy Place’ and ‘Most Holy Place’ or ‘Holy of Holies’), complete with furnishings and utensils. It was surrounded by an enclosed courtyard. In the courtyard and Holy Place, the Aaronic priests would perform their daily sacrifices and other service commanded by the torah (Exodus 25-28, 40). The Ark of the Covenant was installed in the Most Holy Place, though it would precede Israel when they travelled in the desert and sometimes accompanied Israel’s army. After re-conquering Jerusalem and making it his capital, David for a prolonged period moved the ark from the tabernacle then at Gibeon to Zion, the City of David, to dwell with him in a tent at his palace (2 Sam 6:1-7:7; 2 Chron 1:4; 5:2; 8:11). Thereafter, since the ark was in Zion, the City of David, Yahweh sat enthroned in Zion as his dwelling place (9:11), which was housed in a tent of David’s making. Presumably this continued till Solomon moved the ark to Mount Moriah, the site of his temple. During this period, Levites and Priests served before the ark at Zion and also remained at the tabernacle at Gibeon to sacrifice and praise Yahweh (2 Chron 16:39-42). David’s various descriptions for Yahweh’s dwelling include “tent” (’ohel: 15:1; 27:5-6), “house” (bayith: 5:7; 26:8; 27:4; cf. 2 Sam 12:20), and “temple” or palace (heycal: 5:7; 18:6; 27:4; 29:9; cf. 1 Sam 1:9; 3:3). Yet Yahweh’s dwelling place is, in another sense, ‘in heaven’ (11:4; cf. 1 Kings 8:27). See also Ark of the Covenant, Sacrifice, Sanctuary, Zion.
Testimony. A witness, evidence, or reminder, frequently about sin or God’s salvation (eduth: 19:7; 25:10). See also Ark of the Covenant.
Torah. See Law.
Transgress, transgression, transgressor. The Hebrew verb pasha‘ means to rebel or revolt against a person in authority or disobey a command. The one doing it is a ‘transgressor’ (37:38; in parallel with ‘sinner’: 51:13). The ESV renders as ‘transgression’ the related noun pesha‘ (5:10; 19:13; 25:7; 32:1, 5, in parallel with ‘sin’; 36;1). Another verb, ‘abar, is rendered ‘transgress’ (17:3), meaning to cross, pass over, or overstep a boundary. See also Iniquity, Sin, Wicked.
Upright, uprightness. The personal moral quality of being upstanding, straight and not crooked. The noun is meshar (9:8; 17:2) and the related adjective is yashar, ‘upright’ (e.g., 7:10; 11:2, 7; 19:8). They are used in parallel with ‘righteousness’ words (9:8; 11:7). See also Integrity, Righteousness.
Walk. A person’s lifestyle (Hebrew verb, halak, e.g., Psalm 26:1, 3, 11). Following God’s ‘way’ (derek) involves observing God’s instructions rather than wandering from his path. The idea of ‘walk’ as lifestyle continues in Ephesians 2:1, 10; 4:1, 17; 5:2, 8. See also Law.
Wicked, wickedness. Those guilty of sin or crime and deserving punishment; or who ignore or are hostile toward God and deserving wrath; renders the Hebrew adjective rasha‘, frequently in Psalms, contrasted with ‘the righteous’ or ‘upright’ (e.g., 1:1, 4-6; 3:7; 7:9-10, 10:2-4). Sometimes rendered ‘wickedness’ (5:4). The related verb is rasha‘, ‘to do wickedness’ (18:21; 106:6) or ‘declare wicked, condemn’ (37:33; 94:21). The wicked are habitually dishonest (37:21) and full of hatred and violence (11:5; 34:21; 37:12, 32). See also Righteous, Upright, Sin.
World. The inhabited world, human society, rendering Hebrew noun tebel (9:8; 18:15; 19:4, 24:1; 33:8). See also Land, Nations, Peoples.
Yahweh. Our best understanding of God’s Old Covenant name, which he expounded (Exod 34:5-7); related to the Hebrew verb ‘to be’, that is, ‘I am’ (Exod 3:14). See LORD.
Zion. Originally a Jebusite fortress on a specific hill, ‘Mount Zion’ (2:6; 2 Sam 5:7) in ancient Jerusalem. David captured the fortress of Zion, after which it was referred to as ‘the City of David’ (2 Samuel 5; 1 Chron 11:4-9). David made it his capital and dwelling and also built a palace there. Ancient Jerusalem occupied a number of hills, including ‘Mount Moriah’ (the temple mount: 2 Chron 3:1) alongside of which is ‘the Mount of Olives’. Presumably, “my holy hill” (2:6) is holy because the Ark of the Covenant, Yahweh’s throne, was brought to and dwelt there. David eventually brought the ark to Mount Zion (9:11, 14; 2 Sam 7:1-7; 1 Kgs 8:1-4). Solomon later moved the ark to the temple on Mount Moriah (1 Chron 22:1). By extension, ‘Zion’ later referred to the temple mount, and then the whole city of Jerusalem. See also Ark of the Covenant, Sanctuary, Stronghold, Temple.
[1] Yahweh also calls Nebuchadnezzar his servant (Jer 25:9), presumably because of the divine purposes he worked through him, rather than his faithfulness to Yahweh.
[2] H.-J Zobel, ‘ḥeseḏ,’ in G J Botterweck and H Ringgren (eds) [ET: D E Green], Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986), Vol 5, pp 44-64 at 51.