Temas MEC-BRITISH HISTORY signed.pdf
1 imperialismo.pdf
2 I GM.pdf
3 entreguerras.pdf
4 II GM.pptx
9. España II Republica y Guerra Civil.pdf
9. Guerra Fría.pdf
10. Descolonización.pdf
11. Cambios globales desde 1945.pdf
12.a. España Dictadura.pdf
12.b. España Democracia.pdf

4º ESO: Lista de reproducción de vídeos



1. The Old Regime

2. The Age of Revolution

3. The Industrial Revolution

4. Spain in the 19th century


Estos cuatro temas (1-4) se encuentran desarrollados en esta misma página, después de este índice.


5. Imperialism, war and revolution (First World War)

6. The interwar years

7. The Second World War

8. Spain: from the disaster of '98 to the Civil War


Unit 5. Imperialism, war and revolution

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través de los dos textos recogidos en el principio de esta página, correspondientes a:

En el cuaderno, hay que recoger las preguntas correspondientes a las Revision Summary 1 y 4. (28 y 34 preguntas, respectivamente).



Unit 6. The Interwar years

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, puedes optar por:



Unit 7. The Second World War

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, hay que recoger las preguntas correspondientes a la Revision Summary 10  (26 preguntas).



Unit 8. Spain: from the disaster of '98 to the Civil War

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.


9. The Cold War

10. Decolonisation

11. Global changes since 1945

12. From dictatorship to democracy


TERCERA EVALUACIÓN (Curso 2021-22)

Las unidades 9, 10, 11 y 12 se desarrollarán, cada una, a través de un trabajo que se enviará, antes de las siguientes fechas: 

Tema 9: antes del 13 de mayo

Tema 10: antes del 27 de mayo

Tema 11: antes del 3 de junio

Tema 12: antes del 17 de junio

Estos trabajos incluirán una infografía, utilizando la plataforma que se desee: Canva, Genially, etc., 

Se deberá también presentar el tema de forma oral, por los mismos grupos que han desarrollado la infografía, tratando los diferentes apartados. 

La puntuación final vendrá determinada por la ponderación de ambos trabajos.




Unit 9. The Cold War

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, hay que recoger las preguntas correspondientes a las Revision Summary 13 y 14 (34 y 34 preguntas, respectivamente).



Unit 10. Decolonisation

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.



Unit 11. Global changes since 1945

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.



Unit 12. From dictatorship to democracy

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.


Remember: your note-book should always be available to check, at anytime. Your marks depend on it!


Unit 1. The Old Regime

1: Estates: the society was divided into three estates: nobility, clergy and the Third Estate or commoners.

Social mobility: Except for the clergy, a person's estate was determined at birth.

Clergy: high clergy: archbishops and bishops; low clergy: priests and monks.

Nobility: high nobility: high positions in government and military; low nobility: sometimes married to wealthy bourgeois families.

Commoners or third estate: majority of the population:

Guilds: workers in the same job, helping each other, in case of problems.

Tithe: 10% of the crops to the nobles and clergy

Domestic system is the transition from an artisanal production to an industrial one.

Royal factories belonged to the monarchy, large workshops, where weapons and luxury goods were made.

East India Company imported products like tea and cotton.

Triangular trade developed between Europe, Africa and America.

Divine right of kings: God was the source of a monarch's power, and he was above the law.

2. Systems of government

Absolutism was the system of government with legislative, executive and judicial powers, leaded by a king.

Estates General in France, Las Cortes in Spain. 

MERCANTILISM: There was only a fixed amount of trade in the world and a country's wealth was based on the amount of gold and silver that it accumulated. It favoured exports and restricted imports. 

English Civil War the royalists were defeated and King Charles I was executed, and the Glorious Revolution was James II was deposed.

Under the new system of parliamentary monarchy, the monarch was not above the law, and he could not rule on his own. The Bill of Rights of 1689 guaranteed certain rights and liberties, and established that the king could not pass laws, create new taxes or collect them without the approval of Parliament. With the separation of powers, each branch of government had its own powers and responsibilities.

3. Enlightment: Intellectual movement across Europe and America.

-Reason should be applied to all areas of life.

-Natural rights, such as individual liberty, belonged to all human beings. The state could not arbitrarily suppress these rights.

-Knowledge: people could achieve knowledge through the use of reason.

-Tolerance was the basis of coexistence.


Encyclopaedia: A famous compendium of human knowledge published in France by Diderot and D'Alembert.

Thinkers: Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Diderot.

- Criticisms and proposals: Montesquieu (argued the separation of powers); Voltaire (favoured a strong monarchy, BUT based on the existence of parliaments); Rousseau (introduced the idea of popular sovereignty)

Monarchs of Enlightened Despotism: Joseph II of Austria, Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, and Carlos III de España.



4. Carlos II, Duke of Anjou. Archduke Charles (Habsburg). France <> Holy Roman Empire = WAR: Who? Civil war = International war > Castilla versus Aragón and supporters. 

Castilla = France = Duke of Anjou (grandson of King of France, "Borbón", Felipe V)

Against...

Aragón = England = Habsburg

Treaty of Utrecht: Recognised the Bourbon candidate Philippe, who became Felipe V.

Austria received Spanish territory in Flanders and Italy; Britain received Gibraltar and Menorca and was also granted some privileges in its trade with America. In Spain, opposition to Felipe V ended when Barcelona was taken in 1714.

List of Borbons in Spain. 

Nueva Planta Decrees: These abolished the charters and institutions of the crown of Aragón. 

Secretary of State or minister: Felipe V did not use the old councils, but created a new figure instead: this was the secretary of state or minister.

Family pacts: In foreign policy, Felipe tries to recover the Italian territories lost at Utrecht. He made alliances with the French Bourbons through Family Pacts, and participated in several wars: Spain recovered Naples and Sicily, as well as several Italian dukedoms.

5. Enlightened despotism in Spain

Carlos III initiated a wide-ranging reform programme that made him Spain's greatest enlightned despot. 

Esquilache Riots: The Marquis's reforms were unpopular at all levels of society, and his attempt to modernise traditional Spanish clothing led to the Esquilache Riots. After this uprising Esquilache was deposed, and Carlos appointed Spanish ministers like Counts Aranda, Floridablanca and Campomanes. Their reforms tried to modernise Spain.

In foreign policy, Spain recovered Menorca, although the British continued to hold Gibraltar. Spain supported the Americans when they fought Britain for their independence in the American Revolutionary War.

Carlos was worried that Enlightenment ideas could lead to a similar revolution in Spain. Floridablanca and Aranda were replaced by Manuel Godoy. Censorship was introduced to prevent revolutionary ideas from reaching Spain.

Spain and France signed a military alliance with each other. This led to a naval conflict with Britain, which was still at war with France. In 1805 the powerful British navy destroyed the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Trafalgar. In the face of difficulties at home and abroad, opposition grew towards Carlos IV and his minister Godoy. In 1808 Carlos IV abdicated in favour of his son, Fernando VII.

 


Unit 2 The Age of Revolution


1. The thirteen colonies (pay attention and click here to know): The first English settlers arrived on the east coast of North America (New England) in the early 17th century, forming the Thirteen Colonies.

 Northern colonies economy: agriculture and trade Southern colonies economy: tobacco plantations: slaves

 Political tensions with Great Britain: "No taxation without representation". Tea Act (gave the English East India Company a monopoly on the sale of tea in the colonies)

Boston Tea Party: the american traders responded by attacking British ships loaded with tea in the Boston harbour > American Revolutionary War.

 Virginia Declaration of Rights, by Thomas  Jefferson, which outlined the principles of national sovereignty, separation of powers and suffrage. American colonies supporters: France and Spain Treaty of Versailles: Britain recognised the US as an independent nation in it.

 Legislative power was held by two bodies in the new United States: the House of Representatives and the Senate.

2. French revolution: origins (Social: inequalities; economy: bad harvest; Enlightenment: led people to revolution throw reason). 

Assembly of Notables: leading noblemen and ecclesiastics, rejecting reforms.

 Estates-General: People from all three estates presented their problems to the assembly in List of Grievances. 

The representatives of the Third Estate formed a National Assembly because they considered that they were the only legitimate representatives of the French people.

They met in an indoor tennis court and took the Tennis Court Oath to stay together until France had a constitution.

They became known as the National Constituent Assembly. 

The people of Paris attacked the Bastille, a prison symbol of absolutism.

The Great Fear was a climate of tension, when peasants attacked the nobles' castles.

Following the capture of the Bastille, the National Constituent Assembly introduced a series of measures marking the end of the Old Regime.

 Radical revolutionaries were supported by the sans-culottes.

3.  A National Convention (Republic) governed France. 

Girondins (moderates), who seized the power 

Jacobins (radical revolutionaries)

Believing that the revolution was in danger, the radical revolutionaries or Jacobins used support from the sans-culottes to seize power from the Girondins. Maximilien Robespierre assumed all powers, and established a dictatorship: the danger of foreign invasion and the internal threat from French opponents of the revolution led to the Reign of Terror, which was a ten-month period of violent repression.

Committee of Public Safety tried people suspected of opposing the Republic, even if there was no proof against them: sentenced to death by the guillotine (50.000 people). 

A new calendar was adopted: the names of the months were related to the seasons: windy, hot, cold, snow...

Directory: Following the execution of the most radical revolutionaries, a new Constitution established limited suffrage based on property ownership. A moderate government was led by a five-member Directory.

Napoleon Bonaparte carried out a coup d'etat: A Consulate was created, in which authority was supposed to be shared between three consuls; but in fact Napoleon was now the real ruler of France.


4. Napoleon became First Consul. In 1802, Consul for Life. 

Napoleonic Code. 

Concordat. 

1804: Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor of the French.

Battle of Trafalgar: He was defeated by the British at sea.

Battle of Austerlitz. Battle of Jena. Were won by Napoleon against Austria and Prusia.

Britain was now France's main enemy, and the Continental Blockade was an attempt to stop British trade in Europe => Portugal did not accept => Napoleon decided to invade Portugal "passing" Spain => Independence war 1808. 

A turning point in the war came in 1812: Going to Russia: A coalition of Britain, Prussia, Russia and Austria defeated him in Battle of Leipzig. 

He was defeated at Waterloo and deported to the remote island of Saint Helena.

5. Conservative Order (based on Monarchy: the monarchs of the Old Regime returned to power as if the French Revolution had never happened; Internationalism: the great powers could intervene in another country if a legitimate monarchy was in danger; Congresses: regular contact between the great powers was seen as a way to resolve international problems)

Congress of Vienna, leaded by Metternich, the Austrian Foreign Minister Prince:  France returned to frontiers before the Revolution.

 Holy Alliance of Prussia, Russia and Austria was formed to combat liberalism and revolution. It was later joined by Britain and France.

6. Revolutions and wars, due to: 

Liberalism : The French Revolution proved that it was possible to end royal absolutism, and spread the ideals of Liberty, Equality and Brotherhood.

National movements: National identities grew in many parts of Europe in response to the Napoleonic invasion.

1820 and 1830 revolutions: Spain, Greece (war of independence against Ottoman Empire), France, Belgium (An uprising in the Kingdom of the Netherlands led to the creation of the new state of Belgium), Poland (An uprising against the Russian Empire, severely repressed).

1848

 Origins of working-class politics: The proletariat in GB began to organize itself in opposition to both factory owners and government (leaded by bourgeoisie).

o   1811: Luddites destroyed machines in factories, thinking that took jobs from workers.

o   1830: Trade Unions were founded (GB), demanding improved working conditions and better wages, joining types of work (miners…)

o   1838: Chartist movement demanded political changes: universal manhood suffrage, and Parliament to pass laws to improve workers’ conditions.

-          Left-wing ideologies: These ideologies promoted the interests of the working class, as well as offering alternatives to industrial capitalism and the class-based society.


1         Class struggle: Against capitalist oppressor, the wealthy bourgeoisie

2         Dictatorship of the proletariat: Getting political power, the dictatorship would control the economy and redistribute wealth equally.

3         Communism: Replacing the old class-based society, there would be a new communist society in which everyone would be equal.


1         Individual freedom: Fighting against any authority (the state) that limited their freedom.

2         Communes: Small independent groups, where all decisions would be taken by popular assemblies

3         Direct action: Defending their interests through actions, not political parties or elections, including violent attacks and even murder.


7. Nationalism greatly influenced the political history of Europe in two different ways: 

Disintigration of states (nacionalismos centrípetos o desintegradores) (Hispanoamérica emancipation) 

Unification of states (USA) (nacionalismos centrífugos o integradores).

Unification of Italy: Kingdom of Piedmont led the unification under king Vittorio Emanuele II, prime minister Cavour and revolutionary Garibaldi.

Phases:

- Supported by France, "italians" won Austrians and Lombardy became part of Piedmont.

- Red shirts leaded by Garibaldi gained Naples and Sicily

- Italy helped Prussia (in war with Austria), and received Venice as present

- Piedmont occupied Rome, becaming capital of Italy


8. Unification of Germany 

German Confederation, with no inffluence.

Two dominant powers: Prussia and Austria. 

Customs union (Zollverein) by Prussia. 

The Crown of Germany (refused by king of Prussia). 

But won with king (Wilhelm I) and prime minister (Otto von Bismarck).

Phases:

- Prussia annexed Denmark

- War Austro-Prussian, forming the North German Confederation

- War Franco-Prussian, defeating France (Battle of Sedan). Alsace and Lorraine became German. The south Germany joined the rest of Germany.

- In 1871, the Second German Empire (SECOND REICH) was proclaimed. Wilhelm I was crowned Kaiser (in German, Caesar)

 

 

 

 

Unit 3. The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was the result of numerous economic and technological changes which took place in Great Britain from the mid-18th Century. From 1850, the Industrial Revolution spread towards parts of Europe and the United States of America.


Other explanation 


Machines replaced manual labour and trains replaced horse-and-carriages; to power them a new source of energy was used: steam. Many other things were invented that made it easier to make things and get work done.

 

The Industrial Revolution also gave rise to a new economic system – Capitalism – which was based on the ideas of private property, production and profit. It also changed the social structure which was based on two main social classes – the bourgeoisie and the proletariat (the workers).

 

 

This process of change has been called a ‘revolution’, mainly because one transformation led to another. There were a lot of important inventions and changes in a short period of time. These changes didn’t make life a little different, they made it a lot different.

 

 

The Textile Industry was the first industry to be revolutionised:

-           OLD Domestic System:

o   merchants would take raw cotton to a spinner’s house to be spun into thread

o   merchants would then collect thread from the spinner when it was ready and take it to a weaver’s house to be weaved into fabric

o   everything was done at home, by hand

-           NEW Cotton Mills:

o   merchants would run a factory where both the spinning and weaving would take place

o   the process was a lot quicker and more efficient

o   everything was done in factories, powered by steam

 

The North of England became a good market for cotton goods due to its network of canals and abundant supply of coal.


3. Agriculture

 

The Industrial Revolution also affected life outside of cities. In 1701, Jethro Tull invented the Seed Drill:

-           OLD METHOD:

o   scattering seeds on the ground (very wasteful)

-           NEW METHOD:

o   sow seeds in rows and to specific depths using the seed drill (more efficient)

 

4. More about the definition of Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was the major technological, socioeconomic and cultural change in the late 18th and early 19th century resulting from the replacement of an economy based on manual labor to one dominated by industry and machine manufacture. It began in England with the introduction of steam power (fueled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing). The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the nineteenth century enabled the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries.

The dating of the Industrial Revolution is not exact, but T.S. Ashton held it covers roughly 1760-1830, in effect the reigns of George III, The Regency, and part of William

IV.    There was no cut-off point for it merged into the Second Industrial Revolution from about 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships, and railways, and later in the nineteenth century the growth of the internal combustion engine and the development of electrical power generation.

The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America, eventually affecting the rest of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous and is often compared to the Neolithic revolution, when mankind developed agriculture and gave up its nomadic lifestyle.

The term industrial revolution was introduced by Friedrich Engels and Louis-Auguste Blanqui in the second half of the 19th century.

 

 5. The Coal Industry

Why did the demand for coal increase ?

•   From 1750 the demand for coal went up for three main reasons : There was a shortage of wood

Coal was being used to heat more homes

More industries were using coal such as iron making and steam engines.

What problems did the increased demand for coal cause ?

•   Mine shafts would have to dug deeper to reach the coal seams.

•   Miners would have to travel a lot further to reach the coal face


 What were the main problems / dangers mining coal ?

Problem One - How do you get the coal out without causing the roof of the mine to cave in ?

Old solution - Wood posts (pit props) were used to hold the roof up but these rotted

New solution - Iron and steel pit props were used. These lasted a lot longer.

Problem Two - How do you avoid flooding in the mines ? As the mine shafts got deeper and deeper they started to fill up with water and flooding would happen very quickly

Old solution - Leather buckets were filled with water and carried up to the surface

New solution - Thomas Savery in 1698 invented a steam pump

- James Watt in 1776 invented a steam engine this was used to pump the water out of mines

Problem Three - How do you avoid ‘bad air in the mine ? As mine shafts got deeper miners were at risk from two gases: a) Fire Damp – would explode on contact with a flame, the problema was that miners carried candles for light b) Choke Damp – would suffocate the miners

Old solution - For Fire Damp – ventilation shafts were dug to let fresh air in - For Choke damp – miners carried a canary in a cage

New Solution - For Fire Damp – . The main help for the miners was the Safety Lamp. This was invented in 1815 by Sir Humphrey Davy. This lamp had a fine gauze around the candle and so it didn’t give off enough heat to light the gas. For Choke Damp – Exhaust fans ( which sucked the bad air out of the mine shaft) were tried but didn’t work well

Problem Four How do you get the coal to the surface ? Coal is heavy to carry so how do you get it along the mine shaft and then out of it ?

Old solution - Trucks were pushed along the mine shafts on wooden rails, but the rails buckled. Baskets were carried up the mine shafts ( normally by women!)

New Solution - Iron rails were used instead of wooden ones and pit ponies would pull the truck. By 1780 horse powered winding gear was used to pull the coal to the surface.

 

 6.  Child Labour & The Industrial Revolution

During the 1800s the Industrial Revolution spread throughout Britain. The use of steam- powered machines, led to a massive increase in the number of factories (particularly in textile factories or mills).


 7. From Country to Town

As the number of factories grew people from the countryside began to move into the towns looking for better paid work. The wages of a farm worker were very low and there were less jobs working on farms because of the invention and use of new machines such as threshers. Also thousands of new workers were needed to work machines in mills and foundries and the factory owners built houses for them.Cities filled to overflowing and London was particularly bad. At the start of the 19th Century about 1/5 of Britain’s population lived there, but by 1851 half the population of the country had set up home in London. London, like most cities, was not prepared for this great increase in people. People crowded into already crowded houses. Rooms were rented to whole families or perhaps several families. If there was no rooms to rent, people stayed in lodging houses.

 

8. Housing

The worker's houses were usually near to the factories so that people could walk to work. They were built really quickly and cheaply. The houses were cheap, most had between 2-4 rooms - one or two rooms downstairs, and one or two rooms upstairs. Victorian families were big with 4 or 5 children. There was no running water or toilet. A whole street would have to share an outdoor pump and a couple of outside toilets. Most houses in the North of England were "back to backs" (built in double rows) with no windows at the front, no backyards and a sewer down the middle of the street. The houses were built crammed close together, with very narrow streets between them. Most of the houses were crowded with five or more people possibly crammed into a single room. Even the cellars were full. Most of the new towns were dirty and unhealthy. The household rubbish was thrown out into the streets. Housing conditions like these were a perfect breeding grounds for diseases. More than 31,000 people died during an outbreak of cholera in 1832 and lots more were killed by typhus, smallpox and dysentery.


9. Pollution

Chimneys, bridges and factory smoke blocked out most of the light in the towns. A layer of dirty smoke often covered the streets like a blanket. This came from the factories that used steam to power their machines. The steam was made by burning coal to heat water. Burning coal produces a lot of dirty, black smoke.


 10. Improvements

Gradually, improvements for the poor were made. In 1848, Parliament passed laws that allowed city councils to clean up the streets. One of the first cities to become a healthier place was Birmingham. Proper sewers and drains were built. Land owners had to build houses to a set standard. Streets were paved and lighting was put up.

Over time slums were knocked down and new houses built. However, these changes did not take place overnight. When slums were knocked down in 1875 the poor people had little choice but to move to another slum, making that one worse. Few could afford new housing.

 

11. Child Labour

 Many factory workers were children. They worked long hours and were often treated badly by the supervisors or overseers. Sometimes the children started work as young as four or five years old. A young child could not earn much, but even a few pence would be enough to buy food.


12. Coal Mines

The coal mines were dangerous places where roofs sometimes caved in, explosions happened and workers got all sorts of injuries. There were very few safety rules. Cutting and moving coal which machines do nowadays was done by men, women and children.

The younger children often worked as "trappers" who worked trap doors. They sat in a hole hollowed out for them and held a string which was fastened to the door. When they heard the coal wagons coming they had to open the door by pulling a string. This job was one of the easiest down the mine but it was very lonely and the place were they sat was usually damp and draughty.

Older children might be employed as "coal bearers" carrying loads of coal on their backs in big baskets. The Mines Act was passed by the Government in 1842 forbidding the employment of women and girls and all boys under the age of teen down mines.

Later it became illegal for a boy under 12 to work down a mine.

 

13. Mills

While thousands of children worked down the mine, thousands of others worked in the cotton mills. The mill owners often took in orphans to their workhouses, they lived at the mill and were worked as hard as possible. They spent most of their working hours at the machines with little time for fresh air or exercise. Even part of Sunday was spent cleaning machines. There were some serious accidents, some children were scalped when their hair was caught in the machine, hands were crushed and some children were killed when they went to sleep and fell into the machine.

 

14. Factories and Brick Works

Children often worked long and gruelling hours in factories and had to carry out some hazhardous jobs. In match factories children were employed to dip matches into a chemical called phosphorous. This phosphorous could cause their teeth to rot and some died from the effect of breathing it into their lungs.

 

15. Chimney Sweeps

Although in 1832 the use of boys for sweeping chimneys was forbidden by law, boys continued to be forced through the narrow winding passages of chimneys in large houses. When they first started at between five and ten years old, children suffered many cuts, grazes and bruises on their knees, elbows and thighs however after months of suffering their skin became hardened.


16. Street Children

Hordes of dirty, ragged children roamed the streets with no regular money and no home to got to. The children of the streets were often orphans with no-one to care for them.

They stole or picked pockets to buy food and slept in outhouses or doorways. Charles Dickens wrote about these children in his book "Oliver Twist".

Some street children did jobs to earn money. They could work as crossing-sweepers, sweeping a way through the mud and horse dung of the main paths to make way for ladies and gentlemen. Others sold lace, flowers, matches or muffins etc out in the streets.

 

17. Country Children

Poor families who lived in the countryside were also forced to send their children out to work. Seven and eight year olds could work as bird scarers,out in the fields from four in the morning until seven at night. Older ones worked in gangs as casual labourers.

 

18. Changes for the better

It took time for the goverment to decide that working children ought to be protected by laws as many people did not see anything wrong with the idea of children earning their keep. They also believed that people should be left alone to help themselves and not expect others to protect or keep them. They felt children had a right to send their children out to work. People such as Lord Shaftesbury and Sir Robert Peel worked hard to persuade the public that it was wrong for children to suffer health problems and to miss out on schooling due to work.


Our thanks to the IES Don Bosco, Valverde del Camino



 

Unit 4 Spain in the 19th century

¿Cuántas Constituciones ha habido en España? Historia del Constitucionalismo español



The end of the reign of Carlos IV 


Treaties San Ildefonso: Spain and France allies against the British Empire.

Treaty Fontainebleau: It allowed French troops to cross Spain on their way to Portugal.

Mutiny Aranjuez: Godoy was deposed and Carlos IV abdicated in favour of his son, Fernando VII.

Bayonne abdication: Fernando VII abdicated in favour of Napoleon's brother, José Bonaparte.


War of Independence


War: Guerrillas: el Cura Merino, Espoz y Mina, el Empecinado, Chaleco, Juana la Galana, la Fraila. 

Spanish and British troops led by the Duke of Wellington definitively defeated the French, who then withdrew from Spain. Fernando VII returned to the throne.


2. Parliament of Cádiz


Juntas were created to organise resistance against José Bonaparte.

Junta Central Suprema > Constituent Parliament. Cádiz > liberals, conservatives and American colonies.

Constitution of 1812, the first one in Spain, la Pepa 19th march: national sovereignty, hereditary monarchy, separation of powers: legislative king and a single chamber, executive king appointing, judicial, Catholicism.


3. The restoration of the Old Regime


Conservatives and liberals. Pronunciamientos were many succesful and failed uprisings.

 The Old Regime restored through Sexenio Absolutista. 

Rafael del Riego led a succesful liberal pronunciamiento that brought back the Constitution of 1812: Trienio Liberal. 

The Moderates were in favour of moderate reforms, and Radicals pushed for more radical reforms.

 The Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis restored Fernando VII as absolute monarch.

Ley Sálica (women appart from the throne). 

Pragmatic Sanction abolished Ley Sálica. 

Carlos de Borbón, king's brother, wanted the throne.

 First Carlist War: Liberals, Isabel, against Carlists, absolutism. 

Embrace of Vergara is the end of the war.


4. The independence of Latin America


Creoles: descended from Spain.

 Liberalism and nationalism: influence of US and French Revolution. Britain wanted american independence.

 José de San Martín: Argentina, Chile (victories in Chacabuco and Maipú) 

Simón Bolívar: Republic of Gran Colombia (Colombia, Panamá, Venezuela and Ecuador). He saw the beginning of a future United States of Spanish America, but never realised.

 Agustín de Iturbide: México.

Bolívar and San Martín: Perú. 

As a result of these wars, Spain lost all territories in America, except for  Cuba, Puerto Rico. Philippines in Asia.


5. Isabel II and the liberal state


Regent Isabel's mother, María Cristina, contested by Carlist conservatives so the government was forced to look for support among the liberals, divided into moderates and progressives. 

Mutiny of La Granja obliged her to hand over the government to the progressives, who took measures to end the Old Regime: Desamortización Mendizábal, selling church properties.

María Cristina was always in conflict with progressives, so she was replaced by Espartero as a regent, a progressive general, but authoritarian, so moderates and progressives opposed him. 

Narváez, moderate general, leaded a pronunciamiento and  Isabel was proclaimed queen (13 years old). 

Constitution 1845, moderates governing with the queen (Década Moderada), Moderate Decade. The ultraconservative policies of the government led to the radicalisation of the progressives, who split into two groups:

-        Democrats, who favoured universal male suffrage

-        Republicans, who wanted to make Spain a republic

 

La Vicalvarada was a pronunciamiento against the government.

The Progressive Bienium had considerable legislative activity: Desamortización de Madoz.

From 1866 democrats and republicans began to conspire to overthrow Isabel II.

 

6. The Glorious Revolution and the First Republic (1868-1874)


- Progressives, republicans and democrats were excluded from government, and they rejected the government’s conservatism.

- The bourgeoisie and the military rejected the regime’s authoritarianism.

- Economic problems led to rural and urban revolts.

Pact of Ostend: democrats and republicans agreed to overthrow Isabel II.

La Gloriosa: Generals Francisco Serrano and Juan Prim led a pronunciamiento to depose Isabel II: the queen was forced to leave Spain. This is the beginning of the Sexenio Democrático.

The monarchy was mantained, and Spain’s democratic Parliament elected Amadeo of Savoy as a constitutional monarch in 1871.

Amadeo I faced problems on all sides, and as a foreigner, he was rejected by much of the population. He abdicated in 1873.


The First Spanish Republic (1873-1874)


Four presidents: Estanislao Figueras, Francisco Pi y Margall, Nicolás Salmerón, Emilio Castelar.

It faced numerous problems:

-        Cantonal revolution: radical versión of federalism proposing a federal republic made up of separate states or cantons: independent states were formed in Valencia, Cartagena.

-        The Third Carlist War: a new Carlist uprising, which received support in Navarre, the Basque Country and in some parts of Catalonia.

-        Cuba: rebels fought the first of three wars against Spanish rule.

These events created a situation of great political instability. There were two pronunciamientos when Parliament was disolved, and General Martínez Campos restored the Bourbon Dynasty.


7. Bourbon Restoration.  


Isabel II’s son, Alfonso became King Alfonso XII of Spain.

Under a system of rotation of power, known as the “turno pacífico”, two parties alternated in government:

-        The conservatives, led by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo

-        The liberals, led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta

This system brought stability to Spanish politics, but it was based on political manipulation.

In rural áreas, powerful individuals called “caciques” used violence to force to vote one way or another: “caciquismo”

In cities, election results were manipulated fraudulently: “pucherazo”

In the long term, the arrangement between conservatives and liberals prevented new parties from participating in government. These groups included the socialists, led by Pablo Iglesias, and the Catalan, Basque and Galician nationalists. The anarchists were another growing movement.

 

8. The economy in the 19th-century Spain


Liberal politicians took several measusres to free agricultural land from the conditions of the Old Regime, and to promote the growth of private property and the commercialisation of farm production.

Their key measure was “desamortización”. Land that could not be bought or sold was expropriated by the state and sold to individuals.

-        The first was promoted by the liberal politician Juan Álvarez Mendizábal, when the sate expropriated lands belonging to the Church.

-        The second was promoted by Pascual Madoz, when the state also sold lands held by town halls and other institutions.

Bourgeoisie bought these lands, agricultural production increased, but most peasants could not afford to buy land, and they continued in poverty as day labourers.

 

Some parts of Europe -Britain or Germany- became industrial Powers in the 19th century, but this was not the case in Spain. Industrialisation developed slowly, and only in certain regions, for the following reasons:

-        Energy sources were limited:

o   Coal was scarce and of poor quality

o   Iron deposits were only exploited in the north

o   Iron production was exported, especially to Britain

-        Transport infrastructures were deficient: it was difficult to build railways in  montainous áreas.

-        Capital was scarce, so most investors in Spanish industry were foreign businessmen.

-        The domestic market was not very well developed in Spain, which had a less prosperous bourgeoisie than in many parts of northern Europe.

 

Industry, railway and finance

-        The cotton textile industry was especially important in Catalonia.

-        The iron and steel industry developed around Bilbao: the “Altos Hornos de Vizcaya” became one of Spain’s biggest companies.

-        The first Spanish railway opened in 1848 and ran between Barcelona and Mataró.

-        The Spanish Bank of San Fernando was formed in 1829, to lend money to the government. In 1856 it became the Bank of Spain.

-        The Spanish Stock Exchange (Bolsa de Comercio) was created.



9. Social change

 

The spanish population grew in the 19th century, but more slowly than in other European countries. It increased from 11.5 million inhabitants in around 1800 to 18.6 million in 1900.

 

Society

 

-        The upper class was made up of the aristocracy and the high bourgeoisie (bankers).

-        The middle class was made up of civil servants, small business owners, military officers and liberal professionals like lawyers or journalists.

-        The lower class consisted of peasants and workers (proletariat). This working class was characterised by a very low income and a high rate of illiteracy. There was also an underclass of beggars.

 

There was some degree of social mobility (Baldomero Espartero and Juan Álvarez Mendizábal came from fairly modest backgrounds).


Labour movement

 

The labor movement was slow to emerge in Spain, partly because the country was not yet industrialised.

 

-        Early Luddite demostrations involved the destruction of machines and factories (Alcoy, Bonaplata factory in Barcelona).

-        The first workers’ associations appeared, such as the Asociación Mutua de Obreros de la Industria Algodonera, demanding freedom of assembly.

 

Anarchism

 

Giuseppe Fanelli, one of Bakunin’s disciples, organised the Spanish section of the First International. The Federación Regional Española (FRE) was created and became affiliated to the First International, but it was made ilegal in 1874.

There were tensions between marxists and anarchists, and the members of early Spanish trade unions often took the side of the anarchists, spreading rapidly in Catalonia, Andalusia and Valencia.

Spanish anarchism was divided into a more moderate unionist sector and a radical one. The radical favoured ‘direct action’ using violence.

Several anarchist groups founded an anarchist trade unión called the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT).

 

Socialism

 

Pablo Iglesias founded the Spanish Socialist Party (Partido Socialista Obrero Español, PSOE), 1879. In Barcelona was created the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT), socialist too.

In the early 20th century, the anarchists had a stronger presence in Spain than the socialists, who were only strong in Madrid and the Basque Country. But from 1914 onwards, support for socialism grew in Andalusia, Extremadura and the Levante región.



Unit 5. Imperialism, war and revolution

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través de los dos textos recogidos en el principio de esta página, correspondientes a:

En el cuaderno, hay que recoger las preguntas correspondientes a las Revision Summary 1 y 4. (28 y 34 preguntas, respectivamente).



Unit 6. The Interwar years

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, puedes optar por:



Unit 7. The Second World War

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, hay que recoger las preguntas correspondientes a la Revision Summary 10  (26 preguntas).



Unit 8. Spain: from the disaster of '98 to the Civil War

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.



Unit 9. The Cold War

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, hay que recoger las preguntas correspondientes a las Revision Summary 13 y 14 (34 y 34 preguntas, respectivamente).



Unit 10. Decolonisation

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.



Unit 11. Global changes since 1945

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.



Unit 12. From dictatorship to democracy

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.


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La siguiente documentación se refiere a información ya recogida en documentación anterior, por lo que NO constituye materia de examen, sino de consulta.


1.     The great Powers in the late 19th century

  

Countries with authoritarian political systems, such as Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire: governed by monarchies with all the power, military presence, ethnic and cultural diversity, few rights of the population.

 

Liberal political systems, such as Britain and France: separation of Powers, new rights, such as freedom of expresion, universal male suffrage was achieved, workers could vote.

 

Russian autocracy

 

The emperor or tsar held all state power.

Tsar Alexander II decreed the emancipation of the serfs, giving them personal freedom, but their economic situation did not improve.

The empire was inhabited by Russians, Ukrainians, Armenians, Turks and other peoples, so it had great ethnic diversity. There was a policy of Russianisation, which was the imposition of the Russian language and culture on other peoples.

 

The United States: the birth of a new power

 

The westward expansión meant that new territories were colonised by white settlers, who came into conflicto with the natives who inhabited these regions. Only a small number of the natives survived. They were confine don reservations.

 

States in the South were in favor of slavery. In the north, slavery had already been abolished. Abraham Lincoln was elected president, a firm abolitionist. Eleven southern states seceded from the nation and created a confederacy. The American Civil War began between the North and the South. The northern states won the war and slavery was abolished throughout the country.

 

The Meiji era in Japan

 

Japan converted from a feudal country with an agrarian economy to an industrialised and westernised country.

The Meiji era meant that some economic and social aspectos of Japanese life were westernised. The traditional policy of isolation ended and Japan reached trade agreements with several European countries and the United States.



Imperialism is the policy of extending a country’s domination over other regions. The conquering country is called the mother country, and the territories it acquires are its colonies.

Britain and France were the pioneers of imperial expansión, but they were soon joined by Germany, Italy, Belgium, Russia, the United States and Japan. In contrast, Spain lost its remaining colonies in America and the Pacific.

Economic and demographic factors

-        Industrialisation: European countries looked for areas in which they could invest capital for a greater profit than they received in the mother country, obtain cheap raw  materials and sell their industrial products.

-        Migration: Many Europeans went to live permanently in the colonies. The transport revolution made migration easier.

Religious factors

-        Conversion: converting the peoples to Christianity was used to justifiy imperialism. Hundreds of Catholic and Protestant missions were founded.

Political factors

-        Strategic goals: Britain had a maritime empire so it tried to rule areas along the main sea routes.

-        Competition: There was competition among the great Powers to colonise new territories.

-        Prestige: The colonisation of new territories could make up for a humiliating defeat, or increase nationalist sentiment at home.

Ideological and scientific factors

-        Racism: They considered that the people in other parts of the world were primitive and inferior, and that it was their mision to ‘civilise’ them.

-        Exploration: Once a territory had been found and explored, the country which organised the expedition claimed the right to conquer and exploit it.

 

3. The great colonial empires

-        The British Empire: India, Suez Canal, Southern Africa, Eastern Africa, the Nile, Canada, Oceania.

-        The French Empire: Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Indochina (modern Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia).

-        Germany and Italy

-        Belgium: Congo

-        US: Philippines and Puerto Rico, Cuba.

-        Japan: Formosa (Taiwan), Korea, region of Manchuria.

Colonial expansion led to conflict among the great Powers, who met at the Berlin Conference in order to resolve their disputes. The great Powers divided up nearly the entire African continent.

 

4. Colonial rule

Types of rule in colonial territories

-        Colonies: The colonised nation lost all sovereignty to the colonising power, which controlled every aspect of government: Belgian Congo.

-        Protectorates: Native authorities just were in charge of domestic policy. The colonial power controlled foreign policy and wealth of the colonised nation: France and Spain in Morocco.

-        Spheres of influence: Independent countries were forced to cede trade advantages to colonial Powers: China.

 

Economic exploitation

The mother countries had no interest in developing industry in the colonies, and local artisans grew poor, as they could not compete with industrial European products. Indigenous peoples became a source of cheap labor, working on plantations and in mines in conditions that were similar to slavery.

 

Social and cultural effects

-        Demography: Colonisation had a disastrous demographic impact: no immunity to the diseases brought by the colonisers.

-        Traditional society: Colonisers controlled the economy and held high positions in business and government. Natives were marginalised.

-        Culture: Western customs spread among indigenous peoples, and their elite studied in European universities and became westernised. The acculturation (the adaptation of one culture to another) had great influence everywhere.


Colonialism and Imperialism

1.  Colonialism

 

The Historical Context

 

From 1870 a series of great economic changes in advanced capitalist powers (“Second industrial revolution”) brought a wave of new technologies that radically transformed the economy of the most advanced countries.

 

Cheaper transportation and communication allowed people to travel throughout the world in a way and in a quantity hitherto inconceivable. This process of global integration has been called the first globalization.

 

In this context we should understand the phenomenon of colonialism or imperialism. Both terms are used interchangeably to refer to the territorial expansion of the European industrial powers, especially after 1870. The result of this expansion was the formation of large overseas empires.

 

 

The Causes of Colonial Expansion

 

The colonial and imperialist expansion undertaken by the industrial powers from 1870- 1914 was motivated by several factors:

·       Economic factors (raw materials, new markets to sell and buy, valve for population pressure in the metropolis)

·       Political factors (national prestige, lobby groups interested in colonization, action of highly influential politicians)

·   Geostrategic factors (geographic privileged enclaves)

·   Cultural and scientific factors (thirst for knowledge, extension of Western culture)

 

Causes of Colonialism

 

When asked about the causes of the European imperial expansion in the late nineteenth century, historians have traditionally highlighted economic causes.

 

Capitalist development led European powers to seek new spaces in which they could obtain:

 

·   Raw materials to supply its industries (textile fibers, minerals…).


 

·   Markets to sell their products.

·       Territories in which the colonial powers could profitably invest capital, usually in infrastructure such as railways, roads, or bridges.

·       New lands to locate the growing European population, allowing emigration to ease population pressure in Europe.

 

These factors were important, but have been often overstated. It is now known that many colonies were not a good deal for European imperialist countries and that, in many cases, the cost of invading and controlling the colonies considerably exceeded the benefits. In fact, commercial exchanges, demographic flows, and financial investments were much more intense between free countries than between the colonial powers and their colonies. It cannot be said that “imperialism was just about economic exploitation of the colonies”

 

So, without underestimating the economic reasons, which are keys to understanding imperialism, we should focus our attention on other factors.

 

The nineteenth century was the century of nationalism. European powers faced a race for power and prestige that eventually would lead to the First World War. These political causes, based on national prestige, were keys to triggering and maintaining the colonial expansion.

 

Each country had its own motivations: France, to forget its defeat by Prussia in 1870; Germany and Italy, recently born nations, to reach the greatness of the old European states, such as Britain or France. Important politicians like the British Benjamin Disraeli or the French Jules Ferry

ardently defended the importance of colonial expansion to their respective countries.

 

 

Geostrategic considerations joined the political motives. Countries often conquered a country to hinder the expansion of a rival power or to facilitate communication between different regions of the empire.

 

This was the case of Gibraltar, Malta, or Cyprus or the Suez Canal for the British. All these enclaves and colonies permitted the British Navy to sail from Britain to India –the main British colony- anchoring in British possessions.


 

 

 

We also should mention what can be called ideological and scientific factors:

·       The eagerness to discover new and unknown territories, something that Europeans had experienced since the fifteenth century.

·   The belief on European superiority linked to “social Darwinism”.

·   The desire to evangelize non-Christian populations.

·   The will of extending the values and progress of Western culture.

 

Finally, the European imperial expansion cannot be understood without taking into consideration the European technological superiority, the use of quinine to protect Europeans from malaria, and the internal rivalry between ethnic groups that facilitated European invasions.


 

2.  The Great Colonial Empires and Conflicts between the Powers

 

 

European colonial empires were born in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Firstly Portuguese and Spanish, then French, English and Dutch, Europeans conquered vast territories in other continents.

The new expansion of the nineteenth century was led by the great industrial powers.

 

Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth century, the main industrial nations conquered an important part of the planet.

 

·   The British Empire constituted the largest in history.

·   The French Empire occupied important territories in Africa and Indochina.

·       European countries like Germany, Italy, Portugal, Holland, or Spain and non- European powers like the United States and Japan constructed or maintained lesser empires.

 

The metropolis struggled to extend their territories and, as a consequence, their interests often clashed and led to diplomatic conflicts. Despite attempts at an common agreed upon solution, such as the Berlin Conference in 1895, colonial conflicts were an important factor of international instability.


 

 

 

The British Empire

 

Great Britain had been established since the seventeenth century as the great European naval power. Encouraged by its spectacular industrial development, the UK set up an empire stretching from Canada in America to Australia and New Zealand in Oceania, from Egypt to South Africa in Africa. In Asia, the large colony of India was known as the “jewel of the empire”. On top of that, many colonies and enclaves ranging from the Caribbean (Jamaica) to Asia (Hong Kong and Singapore), to Europe (Gibraltar, Malta, and Cyprus) shaped the most extensive empire in history.

 

The French Empire

 

The French threw themselves into an active colonial expansion with a strong nationalist attitude and a remarkable industrial development. Its empire extended around two areas: Saharan and Equatorial Africa (Algeria, Morocco, French Congo…) and the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia).


 

Other Empires

 

Some former colonial powers like Spain in North Africa; Portugal in Africa; and the Netherlands in the Antilles, the Caribbean, and Indonesia remained remnants of its once vast empires. New countries like Germany and Italy struggled to get a place, mainly in Africa, in the grand colonial division that was alive across the globe.

 

At the end of the nineteenth century, two non-European powers joined the small group of colonist countries. The United States annexed the Philippines and Puerto Rico, while maintaining an indirect domination over Cuba after beating Spain in 1898; and Japan annexed Taiwan and Korea after defeating China in 1898 and Russia in 1904-1905.

 

 

Conflicts between the Empires: the Scramble for Africa and the carve up of Africa

 

Tensions between European powers in other continents were not new. However, after 1870, the colonial powers threw themselves into an unprecedented career expansionism that gave rise to multiple tensions around the world. 

 

 

The principle central conflict was Africa. After various frictions, the powers, led by German Chancellor Bismarck, decided to meet in order to establish general rules that would give order to the colonial race. In the Berlin Conference of 1885, the main agreement reached proclaimed that powers could acquire rights over colonial lands only if they possessed them or had an "effective occupation" (administration, army, police…)

This resolution further accelerated the colonization process: the “Scramble for Africa”


 

 

 

The resolutions of the Berlin Conference did not end tensions. The two great empires, the British and the French, fought to extend their influence and were about to start a general war over an incident in Fashoda (Sudan), in 1898. However, London and Paris reached an agreement in the early twentieth century and began a lasting friendship, the Entente Cordiale, which eventually led to a military alliance.

 

Very different was the case of Germany. Its expansionist ambitions had more serious consequences. Its continuous frictions with France in Africa were one of the causes of the First World War.

 

Colonial exploitation in Belgian Congo: an example of brutal colonialism

 

The invention of the inflatable tire for J.B. Dunlop in 1887 and the growing popularity of automobiles greatly increased world demand for rubber.

 

To obtain it, King Leopold of Belgium did not hesitate to implement a brutal system of forced labor on the Congolese population. The tribal leaders were forced to organize work in their villages and black workers were brutally exploited. To ensure discipline, Belgian colonial agents were holding women and children of the tribe until the men returned with the amount of rubber that had been assigned. Those who refused or failed saw their villages burned and their children amputated as punishment.







 

3.  The Consequences of Colonization

 

The consequences of Western imperialist expansion are quite complex and difficult to simplify.

 

Conquest and occupation were based on violence and the colonial system was founded on racial oppression and discrimination. In some cases the economic effects were harmful and indigenous people saw a foreign culture imposed on their own.

 

These were some of the most harmful consequences of European colonization:

•        Economic exploitation

•        Subjection to a foreign control

•        Foreigners became the dominant social class

•        Loss of its own culture

 

On the other hand, the Western scientific and technological progress benefited directly or indirectly the colonized populations. We could say that to some extent there were positive consequences:

•        Improvement of health conditions

•        Access to education for the native elite

•        Construction of railways, ports…

 


The First World War (1914-1918)

Introduction

 

The photos of the summer of 1914 now stun the observer. Young people across Europe are heading toward war as if they were marching to a big party. Everyone thought the war would be a fast and short conflict, in which, of course, his nation would win, demonstrating its power.



 

The reality was quite different. The Great War was a war completely different than what previous generations had known.

 

Soldiers from around the world, in Europe and its colonies, the U.S., Japan ... fought on fronts that were located in the heart of Europe and in remote and exotic lands. In addition, the industrial powers were able to utilize their technologies to work for the war. The result was devastating. The suffering of the civilian population and soldiers reached limits that no one could conceive of in 1914.

 



 1.  Causes of the War

 

The factors that explain the outbreak of the First World War are varied. These are the main ones:

 

●   The new international expansionist policy undertaken by the German Emperor Wilhelm II in 1890.

●       The change in the power balance between economic powers, with Britain frightened before the German industrial might and the naval rearmament, which was initiated by the government of Berlin.

●   Conflicts between colonial powers in Africa and Asia.

●       Territorial rivalry between France and Germany for the regions of Alsace and Lorraine.

●       Rivalry between Russia and Austria-Hungary for the hegemony in the Balkans.

 

A new factor also needed to be added up to the above mentioned: non-European countries like the U.S. and Japan rising to the rank of world powers.

 

Let’s examine in a more detailed way these factors that caused the war.

 


Causes of the First World War


 

 

In 1890 the new emperor of Germany, Wilhelm II, began an international policy that sought to turn his country into a world power. The Weltpolitik ("world politics") Germany was seen as a threat by the other powers and destabilized the international situation.


 

In addition to the new German policy, there were other changes that radically  altered the

world as it journeyed from the nineteenth to twentieth century:

 

●   The second industrial revolution, which began in 1870, shifted the balance of economic might between the powers. The increasingly powerful Germany challenged British hegemony. This challenge was particularly seen in two areas: increasing competition of the German economy and the acceleration of the German naval rearmament

●   As we saw earlier, the extension of the colonial empires exacerbated the struggle for territory, markets, prestige and power between the European industrial powers.






 

In this context, territorial rivalries between the European powers intensified. Two particularly serious clashes took place:

 

●   The Franco-German rivalry, unavoidable since the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany in 1870


 

 

 

 

 

 

●   The rivalry between Russia and Austria-Hungary for hegemony in the Balkans increased by the increasing weakness of Turkey and Slavic (Serb mainly) nationalism encouraged by Russia and directed against the Habsburgs in Vienna







 

 

●   Psychological rivalry between peoples, encouraged by nationalist propaganda campaigns. Hatred of the neighbor was more the norm than the exception.






 

 

 

●   Finally, two non-European powers, the US and Japan, joined the group in the world hegemonic powers. The new war would have a global dimension.

 

 

Formation of alliances and conflicts preceding the final crisis

 

In the years before the war, the powers were forming military alliances to defend their objectives:

 

●   The Triple Alliance linking Germany with Austria-Hungary and Italy. It was signed in 1882, in the days of Chancellor Bismarck. The German Reich and the Austro-Hungarian Empire constituted the core of this alliance.


 

●   The Triple Entente, which was made up of Britain, France, and Russia, concluded by 1907. The increasing German aggression led to Britain and France ending their colonial differences. The rivalry between Austria-Hungary and Russia in the Balkans pushed Russia into the alliance.

 






 

During the decade before the war, four successive international crises marked the evolution toward a widespread conflict. Two took place in Morocco where Germany and France clashed. Two occurred in the Balkans, Russia and Austria-Hungary fought to replace Turkey as the hegemonic power.

 

The final crisis took place on June 28, 1914 when the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo (Bosnia). An activist Bosnian Serb, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Serbian nationalist organization "Black Hand" killed the Archduke. The alliances started working and it led from a local conflict to a general war in Europe and the world.

 

 

2.  The Road to World War I

 

●   1882: Triple Alliance. Bismarck, German Chancellor (1871-1890) and skilled diplomat, built a complex web of international treaties whose key element was the Triple Alliance or Triple Alliance (1882) linking Germany with Austria-Hungary and Italy. Its main goal was keeping France, the enemy defeated in 1870, isolated.

 

●   1888: William II, new Kaiser of Germany. The arrival in 1888 to the throne of the new German Kaiser, Wilhelm II, changed dramatically the international situation. After dismissing Bismarck in 1890, Germany launched a new international policy, more ambitious and aggressive (Weltpolitik) than Bismarck’s, that quickly triggered defensive reactions from other powers who felt threatened before the new German foreign policy.

 

●   1893: Franco-Russian Alliance. The aggressive policy of Kaiser Wilhelm II led to the signing of a military agreement, which established mutual military assistance against


 

Germany, between two very different powers: Tsarist Russia and republican France. This alliance meant the definitive end of diplomatic systems designed by Bismarck: France had got out of their isolation

 

 

●   1904: Franco-British Entente Cordiale. Thanks to its economic, naval and colonial hegemony, for a long time the UK did not need to sign alliances with other European powers (“splendid isolation”). However, the German Weltpolitik was such a great challenge that it forced London to seek international agreements. So, after resolving their colonial disputes, France and Britain signed the Entente Cordiale beginning a period of Franco-British cooperation against German aggression.

 

●   1905-1906: The first Moroccan crisis. William II, on a visit to Tangiers, Morocco, proclaimed the German opposition to French colonization of Morocco. This challenge precipitated the convening of an international conference in Algeciras (1906). At this conference, Germany was isolated and France had a clear British support. The Entente Cordiale worked

 

●   1907: Anglo-Russian agreement. Under pressure from France, an ally of both powers, and growingly suspicious of German expansionism, Britain and Russia finally settled their colonial differences in Central Asia. This agreement laid the foundations of one block that would fight in WW1.

 

●   1908: Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Taking advantage of internal difficulties in Turkey, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina. As Germany strongly supported its ally, Russia was forced to yield to the Austrian aggression and did not face the Austrian-Hungarian challenge. At that time, neither France nor Britain were willing to support Russia in a possible conflict in the Balkans

 

●       1911: The incident of Agadir in Morocco. Sending a German gunboat to the harbor of Agadir in Morocco, Berlin unleashed a diplomatic crisis. Although eventually there was a diplomatic agreement that ended the crisis, the Agadir incident highlighted the growing Franco-German confrontation.

 

●   1912-1913: The Balkan Wars. Two successive Balkan wars that involved Turkey, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria concluded with the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913. The wars caused a shift in the situation in that area. Turkey was reduced in the Balkans to a small region around Istanbul. Serbia (Russia's ally and defender of the rights of the Slavs in the Austro-Hungarian Empire) was consolidated as the leading state in the region. Austria-Hungary was upset by the strengthening of Serbia and came to the conclusion that only a preventive war would prevent Serbia from leading a general uprising of the Slavic people in the Habsburg Empire, who would be encouraged by the great Slavic power, Russia. Russia eventually was determined to intervene when Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia

 

●   1914: The assassination of Sarajevo. June 28, 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo (Bosnia). Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Serbian terrorist organization "Black Hand" was the assassin. The


 

attack triggered a fatal series of events that led to the war. Powers faithfully fulfilled its diplomatic commitments and the crisis quickly went from a local incident to a general war in Europe.

 

●   1914: The start of the war. The terrorist attack in Sarajevo was the spark that started the fire of the First World War. This is a summary of the sequence of events that led to war.

 

 

Date

Event

28th June

Sarajevo terrorist attack

23th July

After ensuring the support of Germany, Austria-Hungary gave an ultimatum to Serbia

28th July

Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia

30th July

Russia started the general military mobilization

1st August

Germany declared war on Russia. France started the general military mobilization.

3rd August

Germany declared war on France

4th August

Germany invaded Belgium, what caused  the British declaration  of war against Germany

 

 

 

  

Throughout the war, several states joined the two blocs in the conflict. New accessions had a key role in defining the victor of the war. These were the main combatants and the year in which they went to war.

 

Year

Entente or Allies

Central Powers

August 1914

Russia France Britain

Belgium Serbia

Austria-Hungary Germany

1914

Japan

Turkish Ottoman Empire

1915

Italy

Bulgaria

1916

Romania

 

1917

USA

Greece

 

1918

Soviet Russia left the war and signed a peace treaty with

Germany

 

 

 3.  Phases of the War

 

The conflict developed on several fronts in Europe, Africa, and Asia. The two main scenarios were the Western front, where the Germans confronted Britain, France and, after 1917, the Americans. The second front was the Eastern front in which the Russians fought against Germans and Austro-Hungarians.

 

After a brief summer German advance in 1914, the western front was stabilized and a long and brutal trench warfare started: it was a "war of attrition". Meanwhile on the Eastern Front the Germans advanced but not decisively.

 

In 1917, two events changed the course of the war: the United States joined the Allies and Russia, after the Soviet revolution, abandoned the conflict and sign a separate peace.

 

Finally after the German offensive in the spring of 1918, the Allied counterattack managed to force a decisive retreat of the German army. The defeat of its Germany’s allies and the revolution in Germany that dethroned the Kaiser, brought about the signing of the armistice on November 11, 1918. The Great War was over.

 

Let’s see in a more detailed way the stages of the war.

 

1914: The war of movement

 

At the beginning of the conflict, no one expected a war that would stretch for more than four years. Naive soldiers even smiled on their way to the front lines and military headquarters made plans expecting a quick and easy defeat of the enemy.

 

At the beginning, the Germans implemented the so-called Schlieffen Plan: they attacked France through neutral Belgium to get a quick defeat of the French army. This would allow German troops to turn against Russia before the Tsar could mobilize his massive army.


 

The French, however, managed to stop the German attack in the Battle of the Marne, in the fall of 1914, and the Russians also halted the German advance in the east.

 

The Western Front was stabilized along thousands of kilometers and soldiers dug trenches preparing for a long war.

 

1915-1916: The war of attrition

 

The confrontation between major industrial powers led to war at a level of violence and horror never before contemplated. The invention of new weapons (grenades, flamethrowers, tanks, toxic gas) and the use of machine gun led to systematic and great massacres, which, however, did not break the tactical tie on the Western Front.

 

The war spread to several fronts. The Western Front (France-Germany) and the Eastern Front (Russia) accounted for the bulk of the operations. Apart from these two main fronts, the fighting took place on other minor fronts: the Alps (Italy), the Balkans and the Middle East.

 

On the Western Front Germans fought against French and British in a long series of terrible battles that did little to break the front.

 

The Battle of Verdun was the biggest example of what the German generals called the "war of attrition". Throughout 1916, heavy fighting took place around the French city of Verdun. More than 700,000 soldiers were killed but the front remained immovable. Something similar happened in the battles of Ypres and the Somme…







 


1917: The Tipping Point of the War


 

 

Two great events came to turn the tide of the war in 1917: the U.S. entry into the war in April and Russia out of the conflict in December.

 

United States had remained neutral in the conflict but had supplied the Entente countries. The Germans decided to undertake submarine warfare, a risky tactic of attacking and sinking not only British or French ships but also attacking neutral shipping. The sinking of several American ships, with the consequent loss of lives eventually led President Wilson to declare war on the Central Powers.


 

Popular discontent with the progress of the war in Russia culminated in a revolution that overthrew the Tsar in March and brought to power the Bolsheviks (Communists) in November. Lenin's new government signed the armistice with the Central Powers in December. Russia left the

war. In March 1918, Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers, yielding large territories.

 

 

 

1918: The Aftermath

 

The leaving of the war by revolutionary Russia allowed Germany to concentrate their forces on the Western Front. The summer of 1918 witnessed the last desperate German attacks. However, Germany was practically alone. His allies were on the verge of military and economic exhaustion. The arrival of

U.S. troops in Europe balanced the scales in favor of   the   Entente.   Bulgaria

asked the armistice in September, Turkey in October and Austria-Hungary surrendered in early November.


 

In Germany, a revolution overthrew Wilhelm II, who had to flee to Holland. The new democratic regime had to sign the German armistice on November 11, 1918. The war was over.

 

 

 4.  The Peace Treaties

 

On January 18, 1919, representatives of the victorious countries met at the Conference of Paris, under the direction of the Committee of Four: U.S. President Wilson, British Prime Minister Lloyd George, French Prime Minister Clemenceau, and Italian Chief Executive Orlando.

 

Representatives of the defeated countries were not invited to the peace conference. The victorious countries negotiated the treaty and they demanded strict penalties against the defeated countries. Since the defeated countries did not participate in the negotiation, it was presented to them as a fait accompli. In other words, they had no choice but to accept and they could not make any changes. The German representatives of the fledgling democratic Weimar Republic, signed the treaty on 28 June 1919, under threat of a total invasion of their country if they did not sign. In Germany, there was talk of diktat, the imposition of Versailles.

 

The victorious countries signed different peace treaties with each of the various defeated nations: the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, the Treaty of Saint-Germain with Austria, the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, the Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria and on the treaty of Sevres and later Lausanne treaty with Turkey.

 

The Treaty of Versailles

 

The position of the victors following the end of the war was different. Clemenceau personified a harder stance with Germany. Clemenceau, the French leader, insistently claimed that "Germany will pay". British and Americans were willing to punish Germany, however, they opted for a more conciliatory attitude. Finally, Italy, who were less interested in the fate of Germany, tried unsuccessfully to obtain new territory.


 

 

 

 

The Treaty of Versailles is organized in several chapters which each have different clauses.

 

Territorial clauses:

 

●       France regained Alsace and Lorraine

●       Eupen and Malmedy passed into the hands of Belgium

●       Eastern territories were annexed by Poland which caused East Prussia to become territorially isolated.

●       Danzig and Memel, former Baltic German cities were declared free cities

●       Denmark annexed northern Schleswig-Holstein

●       Germany lost all of its colonies and the victors annexed them






 

Military clauses:

 

●       Drastic limitation of the German navy.

●       Dramatic reduction of the Army (only 100,000 troops, prohibition of having tanks, aircraft and heavy artillery).

●       Demilitarization of the Rhineland region.

 

War Reparations:

 

The treaty declared Germany and its allies responsible for all 'loss and damage' suffered by the Allies and as a consequence they were forced to pay war reparations to the victors.


 

The London Conference of 1920, established the total amount of repairs that had to be paid by Germany: 140.000 million gold marks, an enormous amount for the time.

 

At the Spa Conference, also in 1920, the 140.000 million gold marks were divided into a fixed percentage and given to each country: France received 52%, Britain 22%, Italy 10%, and Belgium 8%.

 

 

Other Treaties

 

The Treaty of Neuilly, signed with Bulgaria.

 

The small Balkan country suffered several territorial losses, in the benefit of Romania, Greece and a brand-new country: Yugoslavia.

 

The Treaty of Sevres (1920), signed with Turkey, and then fixed in the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.

 

The Treaty of Sevres was extremely hard and led to the Turkish national rebellion, which was led by Kemal Ataturk. This also lead to the war against Greece, which occupied large areas of Anatolia. After the Turkish victory in the Greek-Turkish war, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed. This treaty was much more benign, but concentrated the distribution of Turkish possessions in the Middle East between France (Syria, Lebanon) and Britain (Palestine, Iraq, Jordan).

 

The Treaty of Saint Germain, signed with Austria.

 

This treaty led to the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The break-up of this old empire resulted in the creation of new states, such as Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. On top of that, several sections of the former empire were annexed by new states such as Poland and Yugoslavia.

 

The Treaty of Trianon, signed with Hungary.

 

Hungary was probably treated the worst after the war. Large Hungarian minorities (3 million people, equivalent to one third of the Hungarian population total) were left outside of the Hungarian state, living as minorities in Czechoslovakia, Romania (Transylvania) and Yugoslavia.

 

All the defeated countries, like Germany, were forced to pay damages and to limit the strength of their armies.

 

The outcome of the Russian revolution: new states in Central and Eastern Europe

 

Furthermore, as a result of the Soviet revolution and the collapse of Tsarist Russian Empire, new states were born in Central and Eastern Europe:

 

●       Poland, reborn from Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian territories.

●       Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, which were former regions of the Russian Empire.


 

These treaties, rather than solving the problems that had led to the Great War, caused increased tensions in Europe. The most important was the German problem. Many Germans began to bide their time to get revenge against the “diktat”, the “humiliation” of Versailles. (Treaty of Versailles)




5.  The Consequences of the War

 

The world that emerged after the catastrophe of 1914-1918 was very different from the pre- war.

 

The most obvious were the terrible loss of life: eight million dead, millions wounded people, maimed, widows and orphans, and the material destruction suffered especially by Europe.

 

However, the war also brought other important social and ideological changes.


 

●       The U.S., which had won the war but had not experienced the conflict on its territory, became a first world power.

 

●   The mass mobilization of men led to the incorporation of women into the work force, which was a major step forward for women's rights.

 

●   The triumph of the Soviet Revolution and the social crisis that followed the war encouraged workers in many countries to protests, creating a pre-revolutionary climate.

 

●   The extreme nationalism experienced during the war, coupled with fear of a Communist revolution, encouraged the middle-class populations of some countries to move to the extreme right. This created a hotbed of fascist movements.

 






Revision Summary The First World War

Britain. Major powers: Germany, Britain, France, Russia, Austria-Hungary

Alsace-Lorraine

Tsar Nicholas II, Kaiser Wilhelm II, respectively

Britain. Britain and Germany

1882 – Triple Alliance: Italy joined the dual (France and Russia get nervous)

1892 – Franco-Russian Alliance against triple alliance

1904 – Entente Cordiale (Britain and France)

1907 – Triple Entente (Russia, Britain and France)

It created an Expeditionary Force of 150,000 men, ready to travel immediately to Europe in case of war, and the Territorial Army was also set up

French troops sent to Fez to fight Moroccan rebels. Germany accused France of trying to take control over Morocco, and sent a warship (Panther), hoping to force France to give them the French Congo. Britain objected to the German action because they had a naval base nearby at Gibraltar (they sent warships to Agadir). Germany backed down and recognized French influence in Morocco (Germans felt anti-British)

Germany: Wanted a railway to the east through the Balkans

Austria wanted to stop Serbia from revolting the Slavic people inside its own lands, who wanted independence and hoped Serbia would help them

Russia (Slavic too) wanted a sea access from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, controlled by the Ottoman Empire

Italy wanted to control the other side of the Adriatic Sea (Tripoli token 1911)

Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro formed the Balkan League and attacked the Ottoman Empire in 1912

Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro formed the Balkan League and attacked the Ottoman Empire in 1912. The Turks were beaten and were driven out of the Balkan area and forced to give up their lands there

1913 Bulgaria went to war with Greece and Serbia. Turkey and Romania joined the Greek and Serbian side and Bulgaria was soon defeated losing land to the four victors

Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the heir to the throne, and he went to Bosnia to help the loyalty of the Bosnian people to Austria-Hungary

Because he was a Serb student, and Austria reacted angrily (Serbian people wanted to unify all the slave people)

An ultimatum states that if Serbia doesn’t give up its independence, Austria-Hungary will send troops into Serbia

Russia begins mobilizing troops ready to help Serbia

Germany demands that Russia stop mobilizing, and finally declares war on Russia

Belgium is neutral, and Britain has agreed to protect Belgium. Britain orders Germany to withdraw. Germany refuses. Britain declares war on Germany

Assassination, ultimatum, Russian troops, Britain declaring war on Germany

Trench warfare

o   Mons: Britain managed to slow down the German advance (they didn’t stop it)

o   Marne: The allied troops managed to save Paris, and forced the Germans to pull back to the river Aisne.

o   1st Battle of Ypres: Both sides wanted to stop the other side controlling the coastline

Stalemate in the West

o   2nd Battle of Ypres: Germans used poison gas for the first time against the Allied troops

o   Verdun: The French, under Marshal Petain, held the Germans back

o   Somme: Britain used a new invention: the tank

Russian advance as a failure

o   Tannenberg: 200,000 Russians were killed by German Troops led by Ludendorff.

From East to West and back

o   Caporetto: Italy, helping the allies, attacking Austria and Germany from the South, but defeated at the battle of Caporetto

USA joined the Allies

o   Passchendaele: Also known as 3rd Battle of Ypres: 400,000 Allied troops were killed or wounded to win a few hundred meters of mud

o   Cambrai: As well as Passchendaele

1.      They didn’t have enough weapons

2.      They weren’t prepared for a long campaign

3.      The Army was poorly organized (no discipline) (compare Spanish Civil War)

4.      200,000 Russians killed in battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes

1.      Belgium refused to let the German army through to attack France, so Germany had to enter Belgium by force

2.      Belgium was a neutral country, signed with Britain, so when Germany refused to withdraw from Belgium, Britain declared war on Germany

3.      Russia was ready for war quicker than the Germans had expected=> German troops had to march East to face them instead of pushing on into France

1.      Nobody was used to trench warfare and no-one could break the stalemate

2.      New weapons better for defense than attack (grenades, mines, gas, machine gun, aircraft, tank)

3.      Advancing troops couldn’t hold on to the ground they won, and were pushed back

4.      Both sides were well supplied (arms and men)

5.      Conditions (all the world) not suited for quick attacks

6.      Artillery bombardments were supposed to weaken enemy lines, but they just warned the enemy an attack was coming

They beat the Turks at the Battle of Beersheva, and took Jerusalem. Then took Damascus, led by Sir Edmund Allenby, and finally British forces controlled the area

Brest-Litovsk

Tsar Nicholas II

The effects of German U-Boat activity, and a German attempt to encourage Mexico to attack the USA: this was a direct threat

Government censorship prevented people getting the real news from the Front

People’s attitudes had changed a lot since 1914. They didn’t see war as a big adventure anymore

 


Revision Summary The Peace Treaties (First World War)

France, Britain and USA

France

14: League of Nations to settle disputes

The right to choose the own destiny

The Rhineland was demilitarized. Germany’s armed forces were reduced to 100,000 men, only volunteers, without armored vehicles, aircraft, or submarines, and only 6 warships

Germany was forced to pay £6.6 billion in reparations –payments for the damage caused. The amount was decided in 1921 but was changed later. It would have taken Germany until the 1980’s to pay

Germany had to take the blame for the War – The War-Guilty Clause

Areas around the world that used to belong to Germany were now called Mandates, and they were going to be run by the League of Nations

Austro-Hungarian: Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia

Russian: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Besarabia

Turkey: Bulgaria

The treaty was fair:

The war had caused so much death and damage

Germany had to be stopped from doing it again

People wanted revenge

The treaty was too harsh

The punishment was too severe

The Germans were left weak and resentful

The treaty wouldn’t help rebuild European trade and wealth (Germany couldn’t afford the reparations)

Treaty

Dealt with

Main points

St. Germain 1919

Austria

Separated Austria from Hungary

Stopped Austria joining with Germany

Land taken away eg. Bosnia

Made Austria disarm

Created new countries (see above)

Trianon 1920

Hungary

Land taken away eg. Croatia

Made Hungary disarm

Created new countries (see above)

Neully 1919

Bulgaria

Lost some land

Lost access to the sea

Made Bulgaria disarm

Sèvres 1920

Turkey

Lost land – part of Turkey became new mandates eg. Syria

Lost control of the Black Sea


Czechoslovakia had 2 million Germans, as well as Slovaks, Hungarians, Poles, Ukrainians, and over 6 million Czechs

All the members followed a Covenant of 26 rules: The League could warn countries in disputes, apply economic sanctions, then send troops in, and improve social conditions on health, slavery and refugees

The organization was a disaster: in the Assembly and the Council everyone had to agree before anything could happen so it was hard to reach decisions. The Court of Justice had no powers to make a country act

It solved the disputes:

Neither country was strong enough after the war to do the job properly: economic and military sanctions could only work if a powerful nation like the USA was applying them, but most countries were still busy rebuilding after the War

Germany and Russia were not allowed to be members when the League was first formed

Mussolini wanted both apologize and money compensation after the murder of Italian diplomat, invading the Greek island of Corfu. The League argued in favor of compensation. Finally, Mussolini received money and apologizes: the League was weak, very weak

After the Washington Conference, nobody wanted to reduce arms further –the League had failed in its disarmament plans. Defeated countries were angry they had been forced to disarm

Countries began to make agreements without the League of Nations because they didn’t trust it to be effective -France made treaties with several countries because it didn’t trust Germany. The Locarno Treaties had nothing to do with the League of Nations. Germany agreed to its Western Borders at Locarno, but nothing was said about the East –worrying Czechoslovakia and Poland

No-one knew what’d happen if a country broke the Kellogg-Briand Pact

This means the people vote in elections for the government they want to run the country

Hitler and Mussolini are the leaders. They’re in the extreme right-wing. Fascism takes its name from the Roman fasces, the bundle of rods and the axe that were the symbol of authority in ancient Rome

Fascism was the big danger to democracy –when a strong leader appealed to the people by taking firm military control and rejecting the interference or other countries. Most dictators were cruel tyrants who would bully and even murder their opponents when it suited them

He changed the voting rules, and in the next elections of 1924 the Fascists swept to power, beginning to change Italy into a dictatorship, ridding of other political parties and became the Head of State: Il Duce (the leader)

Hungary 1920, Turkey 1924 (Mustafa Kemal Ataturk), Albania 1928, Poland 1926, Lithuania 1926, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria

The Booming Twenties saw billions of dollars loaned by the USA to help European countries recover from the effects of the war

By 1926, Germany’s economy was stronger and had been accepted into the League of Nations

Wall Street is the trade center for the USA (and the world)

People selling shares=>prices dropped=>business collapsed and people ruined=>banks couldn’t keep value of shares artificially because no money=>banks failed=>government should not interfere

The World economy was producing too much

The boom encouraged borrowing

Europe couldn’t afford US goods

US farmers now couldn’t afford to buy because they couldn’t sell their own produce. People in the US either had most consumer goods already or couldn’t afford them anyway. US companies had no-one to sell their products to –and started to lose money

The Republican government generally didn’t believe the State should interfere in the free market economy to help private businesses, and didn’t believe the State should interfere in the welfare concerns of the poor and unemployed –they should learn to help themselves

Britain: Forced to devalue the £, introduced protection, 3 million unemployed, general strikes

Germany: Banks failing, exports suffering, unemployment raising, 6 million unemployed, democracy threatened

Rich and poor people…

New industries like cars weren’t so badly affected because they used electricity or oil for manufacture rather than coal, which suffered badly




The Interwar Period 1919-1939

After the Great World, most of the mankind hoped that that conflagration “would be

the war that ended all wars”. This hope was thwarted.

 

Before the war ended, Russia witnessed the first communist revolution in history. After a cruel civil war, the Bolsheviks established a dictatorship that, although tried to create a fairer society, gave birth to one of the most terrible tyrannies in history: the dictatorship of Stalin.

 

After a short period of apparent economic recovery, “the Roaring Twenties”, a dramatic economic crisis started in the USA and quickly spread over the other main capitalist powers in Europe. The result was poverty and despair for millions of workers.

 

 

This situation helped Hitler to establish its national-socialist (“nazi”) dictatorship in Germany. Based upon racist ideas, Hitler was inspired in the fascist dictatorship established by Mussolini in Italy. In 1936 a civil war broke out in Spain. Franco, a dictator who tried to follow the example of Mussolini and Hitler, imposed a dictatorship which would last almost forty years. Democracy went through tough times in Europe.

 

1.  The Russian Revolution

 

Before we start studying this topic: What do you know about communism? Share your ideas in the classroom

 

The Tsarist Russia. The causes of the revolution

 

At the dawn of the 20th century, Russia was an autocratic regime very different from the western European countries.

 

The Tsar (Nicholas II of the Romanov dynasty) led with an iron hand an absolute monarchy. Russian citizens had no political rights.

 

Russia also was an economically and socially backward and unfair country. There were important economic differences between the wealthy few and the rest of the population.

 

 

 

The growing discontent exploded in 1905. A revolution made tumble the Tsarist regime. However, although some slight changes were introduced, the autocracy was maintained.

 

The revolutions of 1917

 

The military failures in the war, the enormous number of casualties and the suffering of the civil population sparked a series of revolutions in 1917.

 

·   The February revolution deposed Tsar Nicholas II and established a republic. A liberal bourgeois provisional government continued the war and promised reforms, the redistribution of the land was the most longed by the millions of Russian peasants.

However, the discontent grew and allowed the Bolsheviks or Communists (radical Marxists) to lead a new revolution.

·   The October revolution overthrew the liberal bourgeois government and replaced it with a Communist executive power.

Lenin, the Communist leader, took radical measures:

·   Redistribution of the land among the peasants

·   Control of the factories by the workers

·   The Communist state took control of the banks, the transport system and most of the economy.

·   The political power passed over to the Soviets (councils of workers and peasants). At the beginning Soviets were freely elected, but very soon they were controlled by the Communists.

A civil war broke out in 1918. The White Army (tsarists, liberals and all sorts of anti-communists) was defeated by the communist Red Army. By 1921 the communist dictatorship was firmly established in Russia.

 

Lenin’s government (1921-1924)

 

Under his leadership, the USSR (Union of Socialist Soviet Republics) or Soviet Union was formed. The former Tsarist Empire was substituted by a federal country made up by several European and Asian republics. Actually, all the power was concentrated in the hands of the Communist Party.

 

Lenin died in 1924, he had been shot in a terrorist attack some years before, and a fight for the control of the Communist Party started among the Bolshevik leadership.

 

2.   World economy over the interwar period: prosperity and depression

 

Before we start studying this topic: How does an economic crisis affect a country? Share your ideas in the classroom

 

The Roaring Twenties

 

After the war a period of economic prosperity took place. The USA became the most prosperous country and the first economic power.

 

This economic growth was based upon three factors:

 

·   The industrial development due to the chain production and mass production

·   An increase in consumption fostered by advertising, credit and hire purchase or

payment in installments.

·   Investment in stocks (the capital raised by a company through the issue of shares) and shares.

 

The crash of 1929

 

On 24 October 1929 (the “Black Thursday”), the New York Stock Exchange plummeted as the investors panicked and try to sell their stocks. The “Wall Street” collapse triggered the economic crisis of the 1930s.

 

The causes of the crash were complex: the high price of the stocks did not correspond with its real value.

 

Overproduction was a main feature of the US industry in that time. After the recovery of the European industry after the war, the American industries produced more goods than what they could sell in the market. Supply exceeded demand.

 

This problematic situation had no reflection on the stock exchange which continued to rise without real economic reasons. At the end, this false rise ended and was followed by a period of fear in which investors tried to sell their stocks. As a consequence, the stock prices fell and fell.

 

 

The Great Depression

 

The stock exchange crash was immediately followed by a general crisis in the US economy:

·   Many banks went bankrupt. They had invested in buying stocks and gave loans to people who bought stocks and could not pay off their credits.

·       Industries shut down because of the lack of credit and demand. Industrial prices went down.

·   Farmers could not sell their crops. Agriculture prices collapsed.

·       Foreign trade diminished dramatically.

 

 

The crisis quickly extended from the US to Europe. Unemployment and social inequality increased and despair spread over the people. The social and economic crisis triggered a deep political crisis.

 

After the war, the number of democratic countries had increased in Europe. The crisis caused a growing criticism towards liberal capitalism and democracy. Communism was more popular among the working classes, meanwhile upper and middle classes tended to support authoritarian regimes (fascism, nazism, Francoism…)

 

Solutions to the crisis

 

The economist John Maynard Keynes’ ideas became popular as the best method to

solve the economic problems in the 1930s.

 

Keynes proposed state intervention in the economy to stimulate investment, employment and consumption.

 

The US president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, implemented these ideas after taking over the presidency in 1933. His economic policy was known as the “New Deal”. New measures, quite different from the classic liberalism, were put in place:

·   Banks were forced to offer low interest rates

·   Subsidies to farmers and industries were given to reduce production and put an end to overproduction

·   Working hours were reduced

·   Minimum wage were established

·   Unemployment benefits were created

·   Public investment in infrastructure increase to reduce unemployment.

 

Other countries adopted similar measures either in a democratic regime, such as Britain or France, or a dictatorship, such as Italy or Germany.

 

The world economy started to overcome the crisis in slow motion…

 

3.  Totalitarian Regimes: Fascism and Nazism

 

Before starting this point: Do you have any oral information about Franco’s

dictatorship? If it is the case, what is your opinion about that political regime?

 

Due to the economical, political and ideological crisis of the interwar period some European states were governed by totalitarian right-wing dictatorships: fascism in Italy (1922), nazism in Germany (1933) and Francoism in Spain (Civil War 1936-1939).

 

 

Characteristics of totalitarianism

 

·   Authoritarian political system: the state and the government was controlled by

one single political party with a charismatic leader who was believed to be infallible (“Il Duce sempre ha ragione”) and had unlimited power. Il Duce Mussolini or the Fuhrer Hitler are the main examples.

There was no freedom and the system was controlled by a single political party (Partito Nazionale Fascista, Nacional-Socialist German Worker Party NSDAP) which eliminated any sort of opposition through harsh repression executed by paramilitary forces (Fasci, SA, SS) and political police (Gestapo).

 

 

·   Economic and social control: These regimes maintained the capitalist economic system but the state strictly controlled the different economic sectors. Society was systematically manipulated by propaganda and censorship. Youth was taught to believe in the system and worship the leader

 

 

·   An ideology based upon inequality and fanaticism: Fascism and Nazism did not believe in equality, some people (a race in the case of Nazism) are considered superior to others. Some other people (Jews in the case of Nazism) are thought to have no rights.

These ideologies promoted irrationalism: symbols, uniforms, parades, songs and slogans were used to brainwash the population.

 

·   Nationalism and militarism: Most of the fascists or nazis fought in WW1 where they lived in an atmosphere of exacerbated nationalism. They believe in the right of their nations to territorial expansion (Italy was frustrated after the Peace Treaties of 1919; Germany was looking for revenge after the diktat of Versailles). This led to a great investment in rearmament.

 

 

 

Italian Fascism: Benito Mussolini

 

 

After the First World War, a former socialist journalist, Benito Mussolini, founded the Fascist National Party in 1921. This party organised paramilitary groups (the Camicie Nere, also known as the “Black Shirts”) that attacked violently workers and left-wing organisations.

 

The Fascist Party was supported by landowners, factory owners, middle classes, the Catholic Church and the King Victor Manuel III. The frustration after the results of the war encouraged a growing nationalism that considered the workers revolution as the worst enemy (fear of a communist revolution spread over Europe).

 

After fighting against a general strike in 1922, Mussolini organised the March into Rome.

Thousands of “black shirts”converged in Rome and

claim power for Mussolini. The king supported this coup and Mussolini imposed a fascist dictatorship which lasted more than twenty years (1922-1943).

 

Mussolini established a single party regime and banned trade unions and political parties. Censorhip, propaganda and the labour of the OVRA (political police) make sure the control of the Italian population.

 

German Nazism: Adolf Hitler

 

 

Hitler, a former soldier in WW1, founded the National Socialist Party (NSDAP) in 1920. Following Mussolini’s example, paramilitary units (SA) were created from the beginning. This violent organisation attacked left-wing parties, trade unions and Jews. Over the 1929 crisis, the NSDAP gained supporters by putting the blame of the crisis on Jews, communists and democrats.

 

In 1932, Hitler won the elections and with the support of conservative parties was appointed Chancellor of Germany in 1933. Once in power, the Nazis quickly destroyed the Weimar Republic (a democratic regime set up after WW1) and proclaimed the Third Reich. The new regime was a cruel single party dictatorship in which all the power was concentrated in the Führer.

 

The SA, SS and Gestapo crashed all sort of opposition. So many citizens were arrested, that camps of concentration were needed to “host” all the detainees.

 

Hitler’s ideology was based on racism. The German nation was formed by the superior race, the Aryans, that had to prevail over the inferior races. Jews, alongside with Gypsies and Slav peoples (Poles,

Russians…) were considered as Untermenschen (Sub men, Under men)

 

The Nazi totalitarian state controlled society, education, culture through propaganda (Goebbels), censorship and repression.

 

Obsessed with the revenge against the Versailles Treaty, Hitler opted for an expansionist military policy. The German people needed their lebenraum

(living space) which had to be obtained by invading inferior peoples’ lands (mainly Eastern Europe). Its aggressive policy provoked the outbreak of the Second World War.




Revision Summary (5) The breakdown of the international order 1929-39 (Interwar)

Hitler, Mussolini

Republic of Weimar

Oswald Mosley’s ‘Blackshirt’ fascist party

People criticized governments especially in democracies with regular elections. Political problems meant countries turned to dictators

Locarno had only settled the Western Borders of Germany: it wanted to expand on the East

Depression affected most countries

Democracy was blamed for the bad conditions

Communism seen as a threat to all Europe

Isolationism continued

France was suspicious of Germany

Disarmament failed

USA was worried about Japanese competition, and tried to limit its power and reduce the size of its navy

The League of Nations sent Lord Lytton to assess the situation, producing a report which said the Japanese had been wrong, but the League didn’t do anything else to end the crisis.

Japan signed a treaty with Germany in 1936 and in 1937 started to invade China –again the League did nothing to stop it

Lord Lytton

Japan made them look for ways to get stronger –by expanding (Manchuria) and attacking other countries (China). The League’s failure to deal with Japan, encouraged others to try the same

Japan signed a treaty with Germany in 1936 and in 1937 started to invade China –again the League did nothing to stop it

Mussolini used a Fascist Grand Council, whose members were appointed by him

There was a Council of Deputies who did what the Grand Council told it

Good:

The wheat harvest doubled

He reclaimed the large area of Pontine Marshes, and drained it to build houses

Road-building programme which connected many parts of the country

Railways electrified, new schools and hospitals were built

The signed of Lateran Treaty 1929, creating the Vatican City, an independent state


Bad:

He used terror to win power, been ready to run away if the March on Rome had failed

Some sources said in 1924 that he had murdered Matteotti, a leading opposition politician

He used a harsh secret police called the OVRA against his opponents

He wanted Italy’s population to be bigger

Persecution of Jews under Hitler’s influence

Abyssinia was well-positioned for Italy to add to her lands in Africa

Italy joined Japan and Germany in the Anti-Comintern Pact

Catalonia and the Basque area

Falange

Franco

Italy and Germany

The Soviet Union sent some help, and an International Brigade developed, where volunteers from all over the world went to Spain to help the Popular Front

Br and Fr: you can’t enforce sanctions if nobody else wants to do it

The Depression was worldwide: it was nobody’s fault

No organization could have stopped leaders like Mussolini or Hitler peacefully

The League had to defend Versailles thought was unfair

He wanted to reverse the results of the Versailles Treaty, and bring all the former German peoples back under his control

Into the Rhineland

The League of Nations was busy with the Italian invasion of Abyssinia

Britain protested but refused to act

France was in the middle of an election campaign

Anschluss

He proposed an Austrian Nazi called Seyss-Inquart as Minister of the Interior, but Schuschnigg (Austrian Chancellor) refused. Hitler demanded Schuschnigg’s resignation or Germany would invade. Schuschnigg couldn’t take the risk (he resigned, except for Seyss-Inquart). Seyss-Inquart invited the German army into Austria to “restore order”, so Hitler entered Vienna to proclaim the Greater German Reich: Austria and Germany were united

Sudetenland

Giving aggressive countries like Germany or Italy what they wanted in order to avoid a major war

Munich Agreement

Hitler took the rest of Czechoslovakia (non-German lands)

The USSR never trusted the French, and couldn’t understand why nobody stood up to Hitler earlier. After Munich, Stalin decided to negotiate with Germany in order to protect the USSR

This was too much: BR and FR ordered him to leave. He ignored them and BR declared war on GER on 3rd September 1939

Nobody stopped Hitler sooner (the weakness of the League, the policy of appeasement, the secret plotting of the USSR)

Tension during the 1920s and 1930s, problems caused by the Versailles Treaty and the League of Nations, and the consequences of the worldwide economic problems during the Depression



 

 

Revision Summary (7) Weimar Republic, Hitler, Nazis (INTERWAR)

Friedrich Ebert

2.               To which party did he belong?

Social Democratic Party

3.               Why was the government based at Weimar?

Because there was violence in Berlin

4.               What is the correct name for the German Parliament?

Reichstag

5.               Name the force which was started to keep the peace in Germany

There were many outbreaks of trouble, and Ebert agreed to form the Freikorps, a body of ex-soldiers to keep the peace

6.               Give four reasons for discontent in Germany after World War I

Thousands of people were poor and starving

Many Germans denied they had lost the war

Others blamed for losing the war included the Communists

The Government was seen as weak and ineffective (the Treaty of Versailles had made living conditions worse in Germany)

7.               Write brief notes on the Spartacist Revolt and the Kapp Putsch

In 1919, the Communists led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg tried to take over Berlin in the Spartacist Revolt, but they were defeated by the Freikorps

In 1920, some of the right-wing Freikorps themselves took part in the Kapp Putsch (Putsch = revolt), led by Wolfgang Kapp, they took over Berlin to form another government. The workers staged a General Strike and Kapp gave up

8.               Give 3 results of the French occupation of the Ruhr in 1923

This led to fury in Germany, while workers in the Ruhr refused to work: the government started printing money to pay the striking workers: hyperinflation, with 3 major results:

9.               Which party was responsible for the Munich Putsch? Who was its leader?

Right-wing Nationalists called the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazis), leaded by Adolf Hitler, tried to take over the Bavarian Government

10.            Write a paragraph outlining the work of Gustav Stresemann

He believed Germany’s best chance for recovery came from working with other countries

11.            Name 6 groups of people who supported the Nazis. Give reasons why they did

12.            Name four important Nazis apart from Adolf Hitler

Hermann Goering (Air-ace), Josef Goebbels (propaganda), Heinrich Himmler (SS), Ernst Röhm (SA), Luddendorff…

13.            Name the military force which was set up to support the Nazis

Ernst Röhm was in charge of the SA, a military force of brownshirted stormtroopers who protected the Nazi leaders and harassed their political opponents

14.            Who beat Hitler in the Presidential elections of April 1932?

President Hindenburg said he’d win easily but didn’t win a majority in the first election; in the second ballot he won 53% and beat Hitler who won 36.8% of the vote

15.            Who was appointed Chancellor at the time of the November 1932 Reichstag elections?

Hindenburg appointed Kurt von Schleicher as Chancellor

16.            Write short notes on the importance of the Reischstag Fire

A fire broke out in the Reichstag building, and Hitler whipped up opposition against the Communists, who he claimed started it. Hitler used emergency decrees to pass measures against terrorists; Communists were arrested so that people wouldn’t vote for them

17.            What did Hitler’s Enabling Bill allow him to do in March 1933?

Hitler declared the Communist party illegal; this gave him support in parliament to bring in an Enabling Bill which was passed with threats and bargaining in March 1933; this bill let him govern for four years without parliament and made all other parties illegal: Hitler was almost in full control

18.            Write a paragraph on the importance of the Night of the long knives

Hitler had opposition (Ernst Röhm). Hitler sent his own men to arrest Röhm and others. Von Schleicher and Röhm were killed. The SA had been destroyed, and a month later, Hitler combined the posts of Chancellor and President, made himself Commander-in-Chief of the Army, and was called Der Führer (the leader)

19.            What title did Hitler give himself on the death of Hindenburg in 1934?

The SA had been destroyed, and a month later, when Hindenburg died, Hitler combined the posts of Chancellor and President, made himself Commander-in-Chief of the Army, and was called Der Führer (the leader)

20.            What was a Gau?

Germany was re-organised into Gaus (provinces) with a Gauletier, a loyal Nazi in charge

21.            Which Nazi was put in charge of propaganda? Write about some or the methods he used

Goebbels (in charge of propaganda) controlled the radio, films, newspapers, and education

22.            Which organization did teachers in Nazi Germany have to join?

All teachers had to belong to the National Socialist Teachers’ League (“Germans were a superior race to others”)

23.            What was the SS? What was the Gestapo?

The SS, formed in 1925 as a personal force for Hitler and the leading Nazis

The Gestapo were secret police and could arrest anybody without cause

24.            Name two achievements of the Nazi programme of Public Works

Hitler started a huge programme of public works, which gave jobs to thousands of people, including the stadium which would hold the 1936 Olympic Games

25.            Write brief notes about the ‘Strenght through Joy’ programme

The Nazis introduced the ‘Strenght through Joy’ idea: good workers were awarded prizes, like holidays

26.            Name the leading Nazi who was put in charge of the Luftwaffe

Goering was put in charge of the Luftwaffe (airforce), which had been banned at Versailles

27.            What organization did workers have to join instead of Trade Unions?

Instead of Trade Unions, workers joined the Labour Front, where they wouldn’t be allowed to go on strike, but had higher wages than before

28.            Name the black athlete who won four medals at the Berlin Olympics in 1936

Jesse Owens

29.            What were the Nuremberg Laws? What did they do?

They stopped Jews being German citizens

Banned marriage between Jews and non-Jews in Germany

Banned sexual relationship between Jews and non-Jews

Forced all Jews to wear a yellow Star of David on their clothes

30.            Describe what happened on the ‘Night of Broken Glass’

A Jew murdered a German diplomat in Paris

Thousands of Jewish shops were smashed, and thousands of Jews arrested

Nazi propaganda made people believe that the Jews were bad for Germany

People believed the camps were labour camps

Nazi policy became more terrible as they tried to exterminate the Jewish race

31.            Which Churchman spoke out against the Nazis and was arrested?

Martin Niemöller

32.            In what ways did the Nazis make sure that young people followed their cause?

At ten years old, all children joined the Jungvolk (Young People); then boys joined the Hitler Youth and girls joined the League of German Maidens

33.            Give 8 reasons why the German people followed the Nazis

34.            List the main events of Hitler’s Foreign Policy 1933-39. Give arguments for and against his policies

Arguments in favour of Hitler’s foreign policy

            Hitler was only doing what most Germans wanted

            Germany had suffered the humiliation of Versailles long enough

            No other country would disarm

            When Britain signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement 1935, it approved Germany breaking the Versailles Treaty

 

Arguments against Hitler’s foreign policy

            His wish to reverse Versailles and unite Germany…, but taking the whole of Czechoslovakia and Poland was too much

            Hitler showed he couldn’t be trusted

            He took advantage of the weakness of the League of Nations

            His views on other races made him a real danger




Revision Summary (8) Russia and URSS (INTERWAR)

Peasants: 75%. Poor and using inefficient farming methods

Industrial workers: Poor living and working conditions, low wages

2.               Give three reasons why the Tsar was unpopular by 1917

There was no parliament (the Tsar had complete rule)

Peasants: 75%. Poor and using inefficient farming methods

Industrial workers: Poor living and working conditions, low wages

3.               Explain the impact that the First World War had on Russia

High casualties: 1,700,000 soldiers dead

Shortage of rifles and munitions

Military leadership was bad

Russian forces had been pushed back by the Germans

Inflation

Food shortages

4.               What is meant by saying the first February Revolution was a ‘spontaneous event’?

This was a real people’s revolution caused by sudden risings of workers and soldiers sick of the war, shortages and high prices

5.               Why was Kerensky’s Government increasingly unpopular?

The Tsar gave up the throne. A provisional Government was formed under the leadership of Prince Lvov until July, and then under Kerensky: Russia was now a republic, but the main revolutionary parties were taken by surprise: This was a real people’s revolution caused by sudden risings of workers and soldiers sick of the war, shortages and high prices

6.               Why were Communists split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks?

Bolsheviks (the majority) wanted a small party, led by Lenin, wanted the revolution inside (Russia)

Mensheviks (the minority) wanted a mass party, led by Martov, wanted the revolution outside (Internacional Comunista: Komintern)

7.               What were the main beliefs of the Communists?

Most countries in Western Europe had industrial capitalists systems, where the bosses made a profit from the hard work of the proletariat: This would in time lead to a violent revolution by the workers. After the revolution, the means of production would be used for everyone’s benefit and shared; this is called Communism

8.               What were the ‘April Theses’; and the ‘July Days’?

Lenin issued a document called the April Theses, promising Peace, Bread, Land and Freedom

The Bolsheviks tried to take control of the government but were defeated and Lenin was forced to leave the country and flee to Finland

9.               How did the Bolsheviks seize power in Oct/Nov 1917?

They were strong in key political and administrative centres (Petrograd)

They had a military force: the Red Guards

They were prepared for swift action

They were practical, to create the right conditions for Communism in the long term

The vision and ability of Lenin

10.            What happened at Brest-Litovsk?

The Bolshevik leaders of Russia signed a treaty with Germany in 1918, to finish the war against them

11.            Why were the Bolsheviks prepared to agree to Brest-Litovsk?

The Bolsheviks signed an armistice with the Germans hoping to delay the peace treaties because they thought there might be a Communist revolution in Germany too. This didn’t happen, and the German armies advanced, so the Bolsheviks quickly agreed to the harsh terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918

12.            Consider the events of the Civil War – why did the ‘Reds’ win and the ‘Whites’ lose?

Red forces were united while White forces were divided

White forces couldn’t coordinate attacks because of separation

Patriotic Russians supported the Reds

Foreign military support was soon withdrawn

The communists controlled the main cities

The strict and ruthless laws of War Communism

13.            What were the main features of ‘War Communism’?

Farms and factories put under state control

Food taken for soldiers and industrial workers

Secret Police (CHEKA) executed enemies of the state

Industrial workers weren’t allowed to strike

Everyone between 16-60 had to work except for the sick and pregnant women

14.            What were the results of the Civil War on the economy, farming and industry?

The results were famine and decline: food shortages, worthless currency abandoned, wages paid in fuel and food, workers leave cities, little food in towns, industry declines

15.            What was the Kronstadt rebellion and how was it dealt with?

The sailors were unhappy with the lack of progress, the famine and the terror: they mutinied and seized the base near Petrograd 

Trotsky ordered the Red Army to put down the mutiny: many rebels were killed; the rest, executed afterwards as traitors

16.            Note the main features of the New Economic Policy, and its results

Peasants could sell surplus food produce and pay tax on profits

Allowed small business (shops) and could therefore make a profit

Vital industries (coal, iron, steel, railways) stayed in state hands, but extra wages were paid for efficiency

Results: The NEP allowed economic recovery (by 1928 industrial and food production levels were about the same as in 1914, and some people grew rich)

17.            Write a short summary of Lenin’s Achievements (remember he died in 1924)

His organization and leadership of the Bolshevik party 

Pragmatic and realistic approach to problems

Able to ‘seize the moment’ which was vital to the Bolsheviks gaining power

He set up the CHEKA and the labour camps

Able to change his policies (War Communism, NEP)

18.            What was the main difference in ideas between Stalin and Trotsky?

Stalin (pragmatism) wanted a period of peace and rebuilding in the USSR ‘Communism in one country’

Trotsky (idealism) wanted a revolution to spread to other countries.  He called for the USSR to work for a world revolution

19.            Why was Joseph Stalin able to win the struggle for power?

Stalin controlled the Party (people appointed by him)

Stalin’s rivals had no support in the Party

Only Party members could hold government positions

20.            Explain the aim and impact of the first 5-year plan

1928-1933

Heavy industry: coal, steel, railways electricity, machinery

Actual production were lower than the targets, but remarkable growth in output was achieved

Factories were built beyond the Ural Mountains, so any western invader couldn’t reach them easily

21.            Why did Stalin want to get rid of the kulaks in the countryside?

Some of the peasants refused to collectivize, and Stalin blamed the Kulaks, sending troops to these ‘enemies’

10 million were shot or sent to the labour camps

22.            Make summary notes/diagrams to explain how a collective farm worked

Land was pooled together. Peasants worked together => Harvest => Some sold to government at low fixed price. Some kept by peasants

Sovjos: Tenant: State

Koljos: Tenant: Collectivization of peasants: kulaks

23.            Why were many peasants opposed to a collective farm system?

The speed of change required would destroy the traditional peasant way of life

They didn’t give up lands

They were forced to grow particular crops needed for industry, export or food for workers and they had to supply a specific amount to the state, whether the harvest was good or bad

24.            Why was the early 1930s a time of famine again?

Some villages were surrounded and destroyed, many kulaks burned their own crops, and killed livestock. This helped to cause a famine in the Ukraine where 5 million people died. 1930 saw famine and a poor harvest

25.            Sum up what the Communist view of Collectivisation would be

It ended the forced exploitation or peasants by kulaks

It helped peasants work together

It provided large-scale organization of food production

This was Communism in practice

Soviet propaganda showed collective farms as a triumph for the state

26.            What were the Purges? Give examples of action taken by Stalin

It is the Stalin’s way to finish with his enemies. Old Communists like Zinoviev and Kamenev were arrested and charged in Show Trials. One claim was that the exiled Trotsky was plotting with senior leaders to take power

27.            What were some of the results of Purges by 1939?

Many of the most able citizens had disappeared

The army and navy was weakened by the loss of most senior officers

Industrial progress was hampered by the loss of top scientists (Andrei Sajarov)

28.            How were Religion and the Church changed by Stalin’s rule?

The Communist government began to take Church property and land; Christians were persecuted

The Church was banned from any activity

 

TO THINK: “LA RELIGIÓN ES EL OPIO DEL PUEBLO”     

 

29.            What were the main aims of Soviet Foreign Policy after 1933?

The rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party after 1933 meant Stalin took the threat of a stronger Germany very seriously

1934: Joined League of Nations

1935: Agreements to help France support Czechoslovakia

1936-39: Help for republicans in the Civil War against Franco

 

TO THINK: WHY we ask: What were the main aims of Soviet Foreign Policy after 1933?

Why 1933?

 

30.            Why did Stalin increasingly turn away from agreements with Britain and France?

When Britain and France refused to join the USSR against the Germans, Stalin decided to make an agreement with Hitler (not to attack)

31.            Why was the Nazi-Soviet pact in the interest of both countries at the time?

Germany wouldn’t have to fight on two fronts as in World War I

A secret section allowed for the division of Poland between Germany and Russia. Stalin knew that Russia wasn’t ready for a war with Nazi Germany, and he hoped to avoid any involvement in the coming European War

32.            Use your knowledge of Nazi Germany and the Second World War to show if Stalin should have been better prepared for 1941 and ‘Operation Barbarossa’

Operation Barbarossa had been secretly planned in 1940; Hitler hoped to destroy the Communist system and exploit the USSR’s natural resources

Despite warnings from Soviet and British intelligence, Stalin was completely unprepared for this attack: many of his best officers had been purged, and the weakened Red Army was pushed back

By the end of 1941 the Germans had surrounded Leningrad and reached Moscow’s outskirts

33.            ‘There would have been no Revolution in Russia without the First World War’

Give the main arguments to support this view

34.            The life of the peasants and workers ‘had got worse under communism’

Give three points to support this view

35.            Compare briefly the work and importance of Lenin, Trotsky and Stalin

Lenin: pragmatism

Stalin: He wanted communism in one country: USSR. Pragmatism and rude, ambitious: History was re-written: Stalin became more important in the story of the October Revolution than he really had been at the time; Trotsky became a ‘non-person’: his name was removed from history books and articles and his picture was rubbed out of old photos as though he had never existed. Photographs were altered to show Stalin as a close friend and ally of Lenin

Trotsky: He wanted to spread the revolution around the world. He lost his life because his fight against Stalin

LA MANIPULACIÓN DE LA HISTORIA : LAS FOTOS DE LENIN, STALIN TROTSKY

http://www.publico.es/culturas/430015/donde-esta-trotski

Trotsky: idealism

 

 

 

Revision Summary (10) The Second World War   

Technology had advanced in 20 years –aircraft and tanks had been of limited use in the First War. This would be a war of rapid movement –without trench war stalemate

2.               Which countries made up the Axis powers?

Germany, Italy, Japan

3.               Which countries joined the Allies during the War?

(USSR), GB, France, (USA)

4.               Put these events into correct chronological order: D-Day landings / Attack on Pearl Harbor / Dunkirk evacuation / Atomic bombs used / German attack on Russia

Dunkirk

German attack on Russia

Pearl Harbor

D-Day

Atomic bombs used

5.               Make a list of key points to explain why Blitzkrieg was so successful

Germany attacked Poland in 1st September 1939

Troops dropped behind enemy lines to capture key targets

STUKA: Dive-bombers attack roads, railways and air bases

German Panzer tank divisions smash through enemy defences

Lighter tanks, armoured cars, and infantry deal with any remaining resistance

Hitler didn’t believe anyone would try to stop him so he ordered German forces to begin a Blitzkrieg (means a rapid attack) attack

6.               What was the ‘Phoney’ War?

The next 6 months are called the Phoney War because nothing happened: FR & BR were waiting for Hitler’s next move –and he was waiting to see if they would make peace. Soon Hitler realized they wouldn’t, so the Germans planned an offensive in the West

7.               Explain why Dunkirk and the Battle of Britain may be seen as key turning points of the War

The Blitzkrieg forced French and British forces to retreat until they were trapped at Dunkirk: operation Dynamo saved the army trapped at Dunkirk (German-controlled Europe was ready to invade Britain)

Hitler’s invasion plan led to the Battle of Britain (defeat in the air changed Germany’s war plan)

8.               Why did Hitler decide to attack the USSR in June 1941

To take land in the East for Lebensraum (‘natural development’ of the German people)

To destroy the Communist system which he saw as a threat, and steal the resources (oil and grain)

To use the Slav peoples as slave labour (inferior)

9.               Give some details about El Alamein and Stalingrad as turning points in the War

El Alamein: German supply lines were stretched, British troops had been reinforced (tanks, guns), a talented British commander (Montgomery, ‘Monty’) coordinated the attack: El Alamein was the first serious setback that Hitler had suffered

Stalingrad: In winter 1942 thousands of Germans were surrounded by the Soviet army, because a harsh winter (sub-zero temperatures with no equipment for this)

10.            List the main differences between how war was fought in the Desert, Russian Front and the Far East

The war in the desert was terrible for the troops on both sides to fight and to survive in

Russian Front: a harsh winter (sub-zero temperatures with no equipment for this)

Far East: Japanese growth, planning a surprise attack on the USA (Pearl Harbor). Ending the war through atomic bombs

11.            What happened at Pearl Harbor? Why may this attack not have been such a ‘surprise’?

Some historians say that US President Roosevelt had been warned of an attack but that these warnings had not been passed on

Some believe that Churchill may have deliberately kept back information about the attack, realizing that a ‘surprise’ attack was a surefire way of bringing the USA into the war

12.            Why were the Japanese so successful in their invasion of the Pacific and South East Asia?

The main factors in their success were surprise attacks, good equipment, well-trained pilots and a very large army and navy

13.            Give arguments in favour of/against dropping the Atomic Bomb

Some historians say a demonstration explosion on an island would have made the Japanese surrender

Other say that one million soldiers’ lives were saved because Japan surrender after the bombs

14.            What part did the USA play in helping the Allied War effort before and after December 1942?

The USA, worried by Japanese expansion, had banned trade with Japan. This stopped 80% of oil supplies to Japan in summer 1941. A Japanese surprise attack against the USA would allow the conquest of SE Asia and the Pacific before the USA had recovered

The new US President, Truman, had a choice between invading Japan and suffering huge losses of soldiers, or using a new secret weapon, the atomic bomb, to try to end the war

15.            Why was Midway a turning point in the Pacific War?

The US fleet managed to sink all four Japanese aircraft carriers. These ships were a vital part of the Japanese navy. This broke the Japanese hold on the Pacific, and was one of the major turning points of the whole war

16.            Why were German forces retreating in 1942?

In winter 1942 thousands of Germans were surrounded by the Soviet army, with sub-zero temperatures, German soldiers were unprepared for a winter campaign and weren’t equipped properly

17.            Make a simple sketch diagram to show how, and where the D-Day landings were made

D-Day landings

When?             6th June 1944

Preparation    Portable harbours (mulberries) and a fuel pipeline laid across the Channel sea bed to support landings by troops on…

Where?           …5 Normandy beaches: Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno and Sword

18.            ‘The Russians could argue that they had suffered the most in the War’. Make a quick list of the ways in which Russia suffered

Twenty million Soviets died, including civilians

Many Russian civilians starved to death in Nazi occupied areas

In Eastern Europe some of the worst slave labour camps for prisoners were established. Over 4 million Soviet soldiers were tortured, frozen and starved to death

After the invasions of Poland and Russia more Jews came under Nazi control

When Russia was invaded, Special Action Corps followed with orders to kill every Jew they came across in the occupied towns and villages

19.            Look at the five key reasons given for the defeat of Germany. Add notes to explain which were the most important

Failure to defeat BR in 1940

Poor war strategy especially on the Russian Front

Resistance to the Nazis in the Occupied Countries

The US impact on the War, in supplies and troops

The massive size and increasing skill of the Russian army who faced the bulk of the German forces for much of the war

20.            Learn what the following terms mean –Iron Curtain, Marshall Plan, NATO, Warsaw Pact

Iron Curtain: Europe was divided into the Communist Eastern Bloc and the Western Nations, with the Iron Curtain dividing them (Winston Churchill)

Marshall Plan: The USA organized massive aid for Europe and Japan to rebuild 

NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation: In 1949 the Western nations formed it, against communists USSR

Warsaw Pact: The USSR said NATO was a threat and formed it in 1955, against the Western nations

21.            What similar problems did governments face in the First and Second World Wars?

Reparations, rebuild, relations between the countries, after organizations

22.            Give the meanings of the following words and examples: occupation, collaboration, POW, resistance, internment, labour camp

Occupation: Land occupied by German forces

Collaboration: Help provided by part of the people to German forces

POW: Prisoners of War

Resistance: Opposition by part of the people to German forces

Internment: In Allied countries there were internment camps for foreign nationals, for example Japanese people in the USA, and Germans in the USSR

Labour camp: In Eastern Europe some of the worst slave labour camps for prisoners were established. Over 4 million Soviet soldiers were tortured, frozen and starved to death

23.            Explain why Jewish people were particularly hated and persecuted by the Nazis

The Nazis believed the Aryans, a white race, were the Master Race and other races like Jews were inferior and subhuman. Jewish people were a minority in lots of countries like Germany. Hitler used them as scapegoats for the country’s problems. The Nazi campaign against Jews began when the Nazis won power

24.            What was meant by the ‘Final Solution’ and what were the results of this?

Death Camps were built in Eastern Europe: Gas chambers were built for mass murder

They were killed: mainly Jews, but Slavs, gypsies, black people, homosexuals, disabled people, Communists…

Heinrich Himmler (SS) was in overall charge of this

Extermination camps: Auschwitz, Treblinka, Sobibor, Chelmno, Belzec…

25.            What major mistakes did Hitler make in wartime strategy?

Failure to defeat BR in 1940

Poor war strategy especially on the Russian Front

Resistance to the Nazis in the Occupied Countries

The US impact on the War, in supplies and troops

The massive size and increasing skill of the Russian army who faced the bulk of the German forces for much of the war

26.            List the main results of the war

Germany: Divided into East and West, so was the capital, Berlin

Europe: Divided into the Communist Eastern Bloc and the Western Nations, with the “Iron Curtain” (W. Churchill)

The League of Nations was replaced by the United Nations (UNO)

USA organized massive aid for Europe and Japan to rebuild (Marshall Plan)

NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation: In 1949 the Western nations formed it, against communists USSR => Warsaw Pact: The USSR said NATO was a threat and formed it in 1955, against the Western nations

Britain had massive debts: industry was out of date and overseas markets had been lost. Rationing continued until 1954. The new Labour government set up the Welfare State


8. Spain: From the disaster of 98 to the Civil War


The Second Republic (1931-1936)

The birth of the Second Republic was the key moment in modern Spanish history. The democratic project that the Republic was based on aroused great hopes in the nation. Nevertheless, five years later the country plunged itself into a gory civil war. The debate over the reasons for the failure of the Republic continues to be one of the most important debates in Spanish historiography today.

 

 

The Republic was declared on 14 April 1931. A Provisional Government was established. It was presided over by Niceto Alcalá Zamora and formed by Republicans of all political slants as well as socialists and nationalists. The government was supposed to rule over the country until the new “Cortes Constituyentes” (a parliament whose main goal was to pass a new constitution) gave shape to the new political regime.

 

The new government had to face a tense social environment. While the anarchist CNT promoted a widespread campaign of strikes, the most conservative wing of the Church clashed with the new government. The old sentiment of anticlericalism was flourishing once again and, in May 1931, various churches and convents were burned. The public opinion of the Catholic Church, which involved a significant number of Spaniards, distanced itself from the new republican regime.

 

In June of 1931, a republican-socialist coalition triumphed in the elections of the parliamentary Courts. The new Constitution, passed in December 1931, reflected the ideas of the majority of the parliament.

 

The constitution of 1931

The constitution of 1931 was the most progressive constitution that Spain had ever passed. It had the following main characteristics:

 

●       Popular sovereignty: The sovereignty (power) resided in the people and the new state was declared as “democratic Republic of workers of all classes.”

●       Universal suffrage: After a long, complex debate in the Courts, Spanish women obtained the right to vote for the first time in Spanish history. This established Spain as one of the first major European nations to grant women the right to vote or franchise.

●       An extensive declaration on rights and liberties, including the following:

o   Freedom of meeting, association, and expression

o   Civil rights: divorce, the insurance of the equality of legitimate and illegitimate children

o   Right to education

●       Division of powers within the State: Cortes (legislative power), Government (executive power) and Judicial (tribunals and courts). The President of the Republic had fairly limited powers playing a similar role to our current king.

●       For the first time in Spanish history, regions were allowed to establish their own Home

Rule (“Estatutos de Autonomía).

●       Establishment of a secular state: separation of church and state, which meant that the state stopped subsidizing the Catholic Church, and that the Church was prohibited to rule educational institutions and the absolute freedom of worship.

 

The Republican-Socialist two years (1931-1933)

A Republican-Socialist government presided over by Manuel Azañ, created a number of widespread reforms that tried to solve a series of problems that lingered on from the 19th century.

 

●       Social laws: these laws improved the work conditions of labourers and strengthened the unions

●       Extensive educational reforms: construction of almost 7,000 schools, co-education of boys and girls, and the end of religion as a mandatory subject taught in schools.

●       Military reform: these reforms sought to guarantee the loyalty of the military to the new regime. The military had to choose, either to take an oath of loyalty to the Republican constitution or to retire with full pay.

●       The agrarian reform: this reform attempted to redistribute the ownership of land by

 

 

permitting day labourers to become landowners. This greatly alarmed many landowners even though in practice very few plots of land were actually redistributed among day labourers.

●       Devolution to Catalonia: the central government granted certain powers to the Catalan region by passing a Home Rule Law (Estatuto de Autonomía).

These reforms outraged the conservative opinion and again the military tried to take over power by a failed coup led by General Sanjurjo in 1932. At the same time, however, the reforms did not manage to live up to the hopes of the working classes.

 

In November 1933, in a context of the economic crisis that prevailed over the country

(depression of 1930s), the government called for elections in which the conservative forces— such as the Lerroux´s Radical Party and Gil Robles´ Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas: CEDA)—came out on top.

 

The Conservative two years (1933-1936)

After the elections, Lerroux, leader or the Republican Radical Party formed a government that needed the parliamentary support of the CEDA, the main party on the right. The new executive initiated a new rectification policy to reverse the reforms from the previous two years:

 

●       It stopped the agrarian reforms, with the consequent expulsion of the few day labourers who had occupied lands through these reforms.

●       It halted the military reforms and promoted clearly anti-Republican figures into important military positions. These figures included Franco, Goded, and Mola.

●       Political concessions to the Catholic Church

●       The government confronted Catalan and Basque nationalism. It rejected a project of Basque Country home rule in 1934 and clashed with the Catalonian Generalitat, (Catalan regional government).

 

The Revolution of October of 1934

 

In a context of growing international tension -Hitler had just risen to power in Germany in 1933- the political confrontation reached levels that were difficult to sustain without the outbreak of some sort of conflict.

The entrance of some CEDA ministers into the government in 1934 brought the left to the point of rebellion. Most left-wingers considered the CEDA’s presence in the government as the preface to a victory of fascism, since the CEDA’s youth organization displayed an almost fascist propaganda in the country.

 

The ever-more radical left (PSOE, UGT, CNT the anarchist union, and the minority Communist Party or PCE) called for a general strike against the government.

 

The movement was a failure in most parts of the country. In Barcelona, Companys, from his post of president of the Generalitat, led an uprising with clear secession undertones. The rebellion was quickly repressed by the military.

 

The worst conflict occurred in Asturias, where the general strike succeeded and resulted in a real revolution organized by the UGT and the CNT. The uprising´s persistence led the national government to opt for a more brutal repression. The Legion, directed by Franco, was in charge of putting an end to the revolt.

 

 

The outcome of the October Revolution of 1934 was terrifying: there were 1.500-2.000 deaths, double the number of wounded, and 30,000 arrests made (among them were Companys and Azaña, who had not even supported the uprising, as well as the main leaders of the PSOE such as Prieto and Largo Caballero).

 

Shortly afterwards, various corruption scandals in 1935 led Lerroux´s government to call for another elections in February of 1936. Polls brought a win of the Popular Front (“Frente Popular”), a leftist coalition of parties, led by the Republican Manuel Azaña.

The Popular Front (February-July 1936)

The Popular Front, a coalition that brought together the forces of the left, won the elections of February 1936. The militant anarchist came out to vote in large numbers, which they had not done in 1933.

Manuel Azaña was named President of the Republic and formed a government which was presided over by Casares Quiroga and which consisted exclusively of leftist republicans. The most moderate sector of the new government was the Popular Front. Socialists and Communists remained excluded from the government.

 

The new government, after passing an amnesty of the thousands of prisoners detained in the aftermath of the 1934 uprising, resumed the political reforms of the first two years of the Republic. The new government brought back the agrarian reform, reestablished the Catalonian Home Rule, and they began the debate over new autonomy statutes of Galicia and the Basque Country.

 

Meanwhile, the social environment was becoming more and more tense. The workers on the left had taken on a more revolutionary slant and the right was seeking a way to carry out a military coup that would put an end to the democratic system. The moderates and the democrats were trying to maintain a constitutional and democratic regime but found that they were quite helpless in fighting the current that was carrying the country towards civil war.

 

From the month of April onwards, a number of violent clashes took place on the streets. Meanwhile, a great section of the military plotted against the Republic. The democracy lived its last few days in Spain.

The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

The military coup (17-19 July 1936), led by Franco, was successful in taking control of some areas of the country, but key areas like Madrid, Catalonia and the Basque Country remained in the hands of the government of the Republic.

 

Amid a brutal repression, Spain was divided into two zones: the Republican zone (“zona republicana”), where the government tried to impose legal authority to workers' militia, and the Nationalist zone (“zona nacional”), where the military established a harsh dictatorship.

 

The war went through three major phases:

 

●      July 1935-March 1937. With Hitler and Mussolini’s help, the military rebels managed to bring the army units located in Morocco to the peninsula. Important


sections of central and western Spain were caught by the rebels. However, Franco’s

army failed in its attempt to take Madrid.

 

 

●       April 1937-November 1937. Franco’s troops conquered the Northern strip still held by the Republicans and launched an offensive towards the Mediterranean Sea to break the Republican zone into two isolated sections.

 

●       December 1937-February 1939. The insurgent troops arrived at the Mediterranean Sea in Castellon. The last Republican offensive and the toughest battle of the war was the Battle of the Ebro in July-November 1938. The Republican loss at the Battle of the Ebro eliminated their hopes of winning the war, which ended with the capture of Catalonia and Madrid. The Spanish civil war ended on 1st April 1939.

 

The International Dimension of the Spanish Civil War

 

The Spanish Civil War had some of the greatest international repercussions in the Twentieth Century. The Spanish conflict intersected both the strategic interests of the major world powers and the ideological commitment of the major political tendencies of the time.

The fascist powers decided from the beginning of the conflict to provide substantial assistance to the rebels led by Franco. Mussolini and Hitler would not only achieve strategic benefits,

with Italy continuing its policy of expanding into the Mediterranean and Germany gaining an ally who threatened the French rear, but also helped an ideological ally in its fight against the democratic systems and the Communist ideologies. Dictator Salazar’s Portugal also helped Franco from the outset of the war.

 

The USSR, on the other hand, was very clear from the beginning in its commitment to helping the Republic. Stalin not only faced the spread of fascism, but also pushed away from Soviet frontiers the geographical center of the conflict between the powers and moved Hitler's interest away from USSR’s borders.

 

The great democracies had an attitude that we can define as one of the greatest diplomatic deceptions of the previous century. Britain was determined from the outset to remain neutral. The British government looked apprehensively at the extension of the German-Italian influence in the peninsula. This would compromise the British base in Gibraltar, which was a key point in connecting the empire to India. However, the revolutionary events that took place in the Republican zone removed the possibility of aiding the Republic from the mind of the British Conservative government. London’s government wanted to neither help Franco nor aid a possible revolutionary Spain. The French government, despite being a leftist one, just followed what London did.

 

Another good example of the reluctance of democracies to confront Hitler and Mussolini was the policy of the U.S. government. While the U.S. Congress approved the so-called

Neutrality Act, which prevented the US government from aiding the Republic, President Roosevelt looked the other way when American oil companies sold fuel, a crucial resource, to Franco.

 

Finally, the French government, with British support, proposed a pact of non-intervention in the Spanish conflict: it stated that no material and no men would be sent to Spain to help either side in the war. The so-called Committee of No Intervention was born and all major powers adhered to it.

 

The committee was a farce. While France and Britain abstained from helping the democratic regime in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini sent massive and decisive support to Franco. As a consequence, the only power that the Republican government could turn their eyes to was the USSR, which, inevitably, affected the internal evolution of events in the Republic in the favour of the Communists.

 

Foreign Help

 

The unequal foreign aid received by both sides was one of the factors behind the victory of the Nationalists.

 

The national side from the outset received a strong support from Hitler and Mussolini. After receiving air support to transport the Army of Africa to the peninsula, Mussolini sent seventy thousand Italian troops, ammunition and implements of war, while Hitler ordered the Condor Legion to significantly increase Franco’s air superiority. The collaboration with Portugal, though not decisive in the military field, allowed free passage of arms to Franco´s army through Portuguese territory. Finally, numerous Moroccan troops were integrated in Franco's army and were often used as storm troops.

 

The only help the Republican side received from the democracies was the few weapons sent from France in the early days of the conflict. French aid was immediately severed after the signing of the Non-Intervention.

 

Soviet aid began to arrive in time to assist in the defense of Madrid in November 1936. Although this support was important, it was more scattered and of lower quality than the support received by Franco.

 

The International Brigades were formed by groups of volunteers. Although not all of them were Communists, a relevant number was recruited by the Communist International in many countries worldwide. They were forty thousand and played an important role in the defense of Madrid and in the battles of Jarama (1937) and Teruel (winter 1937-1938).

 

Two or Three Spains? Social and Political Systems Confronted

 

In Nationalist Spain, a stern military dictatorship was established from the beginning of the war under the absolute authority of Franco, Head of State since October 1936. In 1937, all political groups, mainly Falange (fascist party) and Tradicionalistas (Carlistas), were pooled in a single party, the Traditionalist Spanish Falange (Falange Española Tradicionalista, led, of course, by the “Caudillo”.

 

In the Republicans, who were the opponents to a military-fascist dictatorship in Spain, defended different political projects and sometimes experienced conflict among themselves. On the one hand, some defended a democratic system that was similar to the Western democracies, and on the other hand, some defended a social revolution.

 

Those who argued for a democratic republic (Republicans and moderate socialists) were overwhelmed by revolutionary positions, especially in the areas where the anarchists (CNT) prevailed.

 

The Communist Party was reinforced by the Soviet aid and the intervention of Stalin's secret services. The infighting between different factions ended in armed clashes in Barcelona in May 1937. From that moment, the government of socialist Negrin, supported by communists, moderate socialists and republicans attempted to establish a centralized government. The task was impossible and division continued until the defeat.

 

 

 

Revision Summary (13) Superpowers and Cold War

Two main summits were held between the Big Three allies (Br, America and the USSR) during 1945 to decide on the future of Germany and Eastern Europe –The Yalta conference and the Postdam conference (see maps)

President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry Truman

Prime Minister Winston Churchill had been replaced by Clement Attlee after Labour won the General Election

Yalta 

Germany split into four zones: America, Br, Fr and USSR (see maps)

Free elections for new governments in Eastern Europe that had been occupied by Germany

UNO would replace the failed League of Nations

Postdam

The new boundaries of Poland were agreed

The allies decided to divide Germany and Berlin between them (see maps)

They agreed to legal trials at Nuremburg of Nazi leaders for war crimes

Soviet territory had expanded three hundred miles westwards taking land from Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Czechoslovakia and Romania

Stalin was determined to force Communism onto Poland and other Eastern European countries

The USA deliberately didn’t tell the USSR about the development and plan to use the atom bomb on Japan: This made the USSR suspicious of the USA

In a speech in the USA, Winston Churchill warned that there was now an ‘Iron Curtain’ separating Eastern and Western Europe (see map)

President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry Truman

The Truman Doctrine

The Marshall Plan

The Truman Doctrine: The USA would support any nation threatened by a Communist takeover, a contest between two sets of ideas –the USA was defending democracy against Communist takeover

The Marshall Plan: American aid to European countries to help rebuild their damaged economies. Many in the West worried that poverty in Europe would drive people to support Communists. The Marshall plan was designed to ease poverty and so prevent the spread of Communism, helping also the US economy

The Western allies (USA, Br and Fr) agreed to a single government and a new currency to help economic recovery: The Soviet Union opposed these moves. Stalin wanted to keep Germany weak so he decided to blockade Berlin

Berlin was in Eastern Germany, which was controlled by the USSR, so Stalin ordered that all land communication between West Berlin and the outside world should be cut off

The only way of obtaining supplies from the outside world was by air: tons of supplies were being flown into West Berlin each day

West Germany (German Federal Republic) (see maps)

Communist East Germany (German Democratic Republic) (see maps)

North Atlantic Treaty Organization, military alliance between 12 states, directed against the Communist threat

Yugoslavia, Albania

Yugoslavia: Josip Tito

1953

Nikita Jrushchov (1953-64)

Budapest

More than 20,000 Hungarians were killed or wounded

Nagy was arrested and later shot

Janos Kadar, a pro-soviet leader became Prime Minister, ensuring loyalty towards USSR

Between 1949 and 1961 more than 2.5 million people left East Germany for the West through East Berlin. Half of these were young people under the age of 24, and many were skilled laborers and professionals that the East German economy could not afford to lose. The Communist Government of East Germany was worried by this trend: the Berlin Wall was built in 1961 

West Berliners were suddenly separated from relatives in the East –for the next 30 years

No more people could leave East Berlin for the West –those who tried to escape were shot

In 1949m the Communist State of China was set up by Mao Tse-Tung (Mao Zedong); this meant that the USA now became worried that China would spread Communism throughout East Asia. The Cold War spread to this area in 1950

General MacArthur

Seoul

MacArthur wanted to attack China but Truman disagreed, after arguing with the President, MacArthur was sacked

French forces were completely defeated at Dien Ben Phu by the North Vietnamese in 1954

France withdrew from Indo China (they had lost their colony)

Vietnam was partitioned into Communist North and Democratic (real) South

Laos and Cambodia were set up as independent states 


Batista

In 1959, Fidel Castro began a guerrilla war and soon marched into Cuba’s capital, Havana, and successfully overthrew the government

He shut down the gambling casinos and the brothels

He nationalized American owned sugar mills and oil refineries

He seized $1000 million worth of American property

Castro began to work with the USSR –he’d always been Communist influenced

The USSR offered to buy Cuba’s sugar instead of the USA

In 1961, President Kennedy authorized an invasion of Cuba by CIA-trained anti-Castro Cuban exiles. The rebels landed in the Bay of Pigs, but the US didn’t give them air support as they had promised, so the rebels were easily defeated

The USA’s U2 spy planes flying high-altitude reconnaissance flights detected these Soviet missiles –from Cuba they could be used to attack US cities.

President Kennedy ordered a naval blockade of Cuba. All Soviet ships were to be stopped and searched to prevent further missiles being transported to Cuba

Kennedy demanded that Khrushchev withdraw his missiles and prepared to invade Cuba. The Soviet ships steamed on to Cuba

At the last minute Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles from Cuba and ordered his ships to turn around –if the US would promise to remove missiles from Turkey, near the Soviet border. Kennedy lifted the blockade and promised not to invade Cuba



Revision Summary (14) Cold War and collapse of the USSR

The USA believed that if just one country was taken over by Communist leaders, then that would lead to nearby countries becoming Communist as well

Johnson increased the number of American troops in South Vietnam from 23,000 in 1964 to 165,000 in 1965 and 500,000 in 1967

In 1965, a US bombing campaign began against North Vietnam

Communist rebels supported by North Vietnamese forces

Many Americans were increasingly concerned about the number of American casualties in Vietnam, and the amount of money being spent on the war. A massacre of Vietnamese civilians by American soldiers made public opinion started to turn against the war

Heavy bombing of North Vietnam and Cambodia began again. This was an attempt to force a peace settlement. It was intended to destroy North Vietnamese supply lines –the main supply route was known as the Ho Chi Minh trail

Saigon

The Vietcong treated the South Vietnamese well and gained their support

US bombing killed many civilians and made North Vietnam more determined to defeat America

Vietcong guerillas were very skilful soldiers

American troops were mostly poorly-motivated conscripts, unused to fighting in the jungle

The North Vietnamese had the support of China and the Soviet Union

American public opinion turned against the war

The South Vietnamese regime was unpopular

1962

A permanent telephone ‘hot-line’, known as IWIK, was set up between the Kremlin and the White House

The USSR and the USA signed a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. This didn’t prevent the countries from developing more nuclear weapons, but it did limit nuclear testing

The Cuban missile crisis of 1962 brought the world to the brink of nuclear war. Both the USA and the USSR realized it was important that any further critical situations between the two countries should be avoided. This resulted in a relaxation or ‘détente’ in relations between the two countries

In 1972, the two superpowers agreed to limit their nuclear weapons when they signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Agreement (SALT 1)

Talks continued throughout the 1970s with a view to further limitations but the USA refused to sign the proposed SALT 2 agreement in 1979, following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

He led acceleration in the arms race –supporting an increase in US defence spending and the development of new weapons

Reagan secretly got involved in South American politics in an attempt to suppress left-wing leaders and governments (e.g. against the left-wing Sandinista government in Nicaragua)

In 1977, the USSR had begun replacing old missiles in its Eastern European satellite states, with more modern and destructive SS-20 nuclear missiles. The USA and Western European states saw this as a threat

As a reaction to these Soviet missiles, President Jimmy Carter allowed more weapons development in the USA. NATO decided to station over 500 Cruise and Pershing missiles in Western Europe by 1983 as a deterrent to a Soviet attack

By 1979, US Congress refused to ratify (make law) the SALT 2 agreement (which would have put more restrictions on the development of nuclear weapons)

Under President Reagan, the US started developing the multi-billion dollar Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI or ‘Star Wars’). The object was to create a system which could use satellites and lasers to shoot down Soviet missiles from the sky before they reached their targets

Czechoslovakia rebelled against Communism in 1968: Alexander Dubcek became leader and made a series of changes to the country

Workers were given a greater say in their factories

Travel to the West was made available for all

Living standards were to be raised

Free elections were to be held

Opposition parties would be permitted

The USSR decided to stop this –on 22nd August 1968, 500,000 Soviet troops invaded and Dubcek was removed from office. Soviet control was restored. Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev (Khruschev had been removed in 1964) said he’d use force to crush any Eastern European uprisings

In 1980, Lech Walesa led shipyard workers in the port of Gdansk in protest against the increase in food prices –with some success

They set up their own independent trade union called ‘Solidarity’ and demanded the right to strike and to be consulted on all major decisions affecting their living and working conditions

General Jaruselski, with Soviet support, seized control of the country

Solidarity was banned, Lech Walesa arrested, prices of basic foodstuffs was increased by 40%

The Soviet leader Mikhail Gorvachev told the United Nations that the countries of Eastern Europe now had a choice: the USSR wasn’t going to control them any more

Hungary opened its frontier with Austria

Free elections in Poland: Solidarity won (new non-Communist government)

Many East Germans crossed into West Germany

Berlin Wall was torn down

Anti-Communist demonstration in Czechoslovakia

Nikolai Ceauçescu, Romania dictator, was executed after a revolution against his cruel and corrupt regime

Nikolai Ceauçescu, Romania dictator, after a revolution against his cruel and corrupt regime

Its economy, weak: Economic policy hadn’t changed to adapt to modern conditions: Low quality of goods

Arms race with the USA very expensive

There wasn’t enough food (millions of tons of grain imported from the USA)

Afghanistan: 15,000 Soviet troops were killed, and the war cost $8 billion per year. It dragged on throughout the 1980s and seemed unwinnable

In 1979, the USSR invaded Afghanistan to protect the pro-Soviet regime there from Muslim opposition forces called the Mujahidin

15,000 Soviet troops were killed, and the war cost $8 billion per year. It dragged on throughout the 1980s and seemed unwinnable

In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary of the Communist Party

Glasnost meant Openness 

Political prisoners were released (Andrei Sakharov)

Telling about atrocities committed by Stalin

Free speech was allowed

Military conscription abolished

Perestroika meant Economic Restructuring

Finishing with control over production quotas and trade; small-scale private enterprise and workers’ cooperatives were to be allowed

Perestroika, because it was a long term fact, while glasnost was an open mind to people, faster, definitely

Boris Yeltsin was elected President of Russia (not of the USSR) in 1990, disillusioned with the Communist Party




-----------------------

 

 

 




2. Imperialism: definition. T

Economic and demographic factors: industrialisation and migration

Religious factors: conversion, missions

Political factors: strategic goals, competition, prestige

Ideological and scientific factors: racism, exploration


3. Great colonial empires

British Empire

French Empire

Germany and Italy. Belgium

Russia

US

Japan

Berlin Conference


4. Colonial rule

Three main types of rule: colonies, protectorates, spheres of influence

Plantation agriculture. Minerals. Indigenous people: cheap labour.

Social and cultural effects: Demography: colonisation had a disastrous demographic impact. Traditional society: natives were considered infrerior and marginalised. Culture: acculturation.


5. Causes World War I (1914-1918), Great War

Bismarckian Alliance System: isolate France, Balkans

Dual Alliance > Triple Alliance

Armed Peace

Triple Alliance (Gr. Aus-Hun. Italy) vs Triple Entente (Fr. Br. Russ)

Algeciras Conference (Fr, Sp, Morocco). Eastern Question (Serbia, Bulgaria, Russia; Austria-Hungary)

Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Black Hand. Shot. Austria-Hungary vs Serbia. Russia with Serbia. Germany vs. Russia and ally, Fr. Germany invaded Belgium to attack Fr. Br is friend of Belgium and declared war on Germany and Austr-Hung. I WW had begun


6. The course of the War

Triple Alliance (Ger. Aus-Hun. Italy) - Italy + Ottoman Empire + Bulgaria

Triple Entente (Fr. Br. Russ) + Italy + Romania + Greece + US + China + Japan

War of movement: Schlieffen Plan: Germany conquerig France quickly and then Russia (Battle of Marne stopping the Germans by Fr)

War of positions: trenches, machine guns, lasted the war. Battle of Verdun. Battle of the Same.

Otros frentes: Mediterráneo (Gallipolli). África. Asia. Cerca del este.

1917: Revolución bolchevique (Rusia retira el conflicto)> 1918: Tratado de Brest-Litovsk (paz Rusia y Alemania)


7. Consecuencias.

Humanos: 15-20 millones de personas murieron

Conferencia de Paz de París: Versalles (Alemania), Saint-Germain (Austria), Trianon (Hungría), Sèvres (Turquía), Neuilly (Bulgaria), obligando a los países derrotados a aceptar sus condiciones.

Paz de París: objetivos principales: prevenir el resurgimiento de Alemania, lograr un equilibrio de poder, aislar a Rusia (comunismo)

Liga de Naciones (catorce puntos, Woodrow Wilson). Falló, porque no era representativo (especialmente Germ)

Cambios territoriales: Alemania, el Imperio Austro-Húngaro y Otomano dejaron de existir:

Alemania perdió colonias

Alsacia-Lorena al P.

Aust.Hung> Austria, Hungría, Checoslovaquia y Yugoslavia

Imperio Otomano: Siria a Fr, Irak y Palestina a Fr

Finlandia, Estonia, Letonia y Lituania, independientes de Rusia

Polonia se amplió a través de Rusia, Austria y Alemania.

Rumania ampliada a través de Austr.Hung

Otras consecuencias

Diktat, reparaciones de guerra, amargura


8. Revolución rusa

Zar. Monarca absoluto. Duma. Proletariado. Partido Socialista Revolucionario. Partido Demócrata Constitucional. Partido obrero socialdemócrata ruso marxista (mencheviques y bolcheviques)

Domingo Sangriento. Soviets. Manifiesto de octubre.


9. Revolutions 1917. Guerra civil rusa

Petrogrado = San Petersburgo. Lema Paz, Pan y Tierra. Tesis de abril de Lenin. Tratado de Brest-Litovsk: cambios. Ejército Blanco, Ejército Rojo. Comunismo de guerra. Partido Comunista> dictadura. Revuelta espartaquista.



4 ESO 

 

2.2. The Age of Discovery

-          New routes to East Asia, using caravels, compasses

-          Consequences: Gold, silver, diseases, slaves, religion, language

 

2.3. Monarchy during the Early Modern Age

-          Authoritarian monarchy: Spain: Catholic Monarchs

-          Absolute monarchy

-          Parliamentary monarchy: England: Civil War: Cromwell. 1689: Bill of Rights (no taxes without Parliament’s consent)

 

2.4. Commercial capitalism and mercantilism

-          The 16th century: commercial capitalism: The new world; banks; bills of exchange

-          The 17th century: mercantilism: much gold & silver => crisis => mercantilism (you’re rich if you have silver & gold) => protectionist policies to limit imports and encourage exports

 

2.5. Early Modern society

-          First and Second Estates: clergy & nobility: no taxes, living by the rent from their lands

-          Third Estate: They paid taxes

o   Upper middle class: bourgeoisie: bankers, traders…

o   Lower middle class: petit bourgeoisie: smiths…

o   Peasantry: labourers

2.6. Renaissance and Baroque art

-          Renaissance: Humanism

-          Baroque: Reformation and Counter-Reformation

 

 

 

. The transformation of the “Ancien Régime” (Old Regime)

 

3.1. The 18th century: period of change. Reason, science and education are the leaders.

Bourgeoisie became more important and tried to gain more political power.

 

3.2. The Enlightenment: a change in thinking, wanting to put an end to ignorance and promote social progress, using reason, science and education: The “Encyclopaedia” summarized knowledge from science, philosophy, art and Grammar (Diderot)

              - Criticisms and proposals: Montesquieu (argued the separation of powers); Voltaire (favoured a strong monarchy, BUT based on the existence of parliaments); Rousseau (introduced the idea of popular sovereignty)

                - Physiocrats said that agriculture was the true source of wealth, rejecting Mercantilism, and believed that the state should not interfere with trade and other economic activities (Adam Smith).

              - Spain: Jovellanos, Conde de Floridablanca = > They tried to improve economic, social and cultural conditions, after the declined during the Lesser Hapsburgs (Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II), publishing scientific papers, and establishing academies (Sociedades económicas de amigos del país), with the nobility’s resistance.

 

3.3. Enlightenment in Europe, America and Spain

- Enlightened despotism: It pretends to combine absolute monarchy with Enlightenment ideas: centralized governments, enlightened thinkers as ministers: Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, Frederick II of Prussia and Carlos III of Spain (Olavide y las nuevas poblaciones de Sierra Morena: San Carlos del Valle, La Carolina…, pueblos de repoblación). It maintained the estates system, and finally fell down.

 

- United States: In American War of Independence, 13 British colonies will be free, because:

Ideological (Enlightenment ideas), Political (Great Britain refused to give them representation in Parliament), Socio-economic (colonists wanted control over their own commercial activities).

New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia established themselves through a federal republic based on popular sovereignty and the separation of powers.

 

-Spain: After Charles II: Philip of Anjou (supported by France and Crown of Castilla), and Archduke Charles of Austria (supported by Austria, Great Britain and the Crown of Aragón). Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt: Felipe V, grandson of France’s Monarch became king in Spain, first Bourbon. Great Britain received Menorca and Gibraltar.

Castilla’s laws were imposed on Aragón as punishment for not supporting Felipe V during the War of Succession. Spain was divided into provinces, with the figure of intendant.

 

3.4. Economic changes

- Agriculture: Harvest improved due to: crop rotation, machinery increased productivity, repopulation (Sierra Morena), new crops from New World (potatoes, corn)

- Craftmanship: Domestic system of production became important (textiles)

- Commerce: Domestic trade was limited, so they improved roads and built new ones. International trade was controlled by the British between Europe, Africa and America.

- Spain: Growth in 18th century (Felipe V, Carlos III, Sociedades Económicas de amigos del país): Canal de Castilla, repopulation Sierra Morena, textile production in Cataluña protected. Cádiz lost its monopoly on transatlantic  trade.

 

3.5. Society 18th century: scientific advances, improvements in nutrition and hygiene, reduction of epidemics => 1700-1800: 95 million people to 146 million in Europe.

- Estates: Clergy & nobility lost power, due to enlightenment thinkers. Bourgeoisie protested against nobility and clergy’s privileges. Peasants did not improve.

- Daily life: Thinkers improved childcare and education, and criticized arranged marriages. Women continued to be dependent on their fathers, brothers and husbands.

- Spain: Carlos III eliminated the legal dishonor of labour (members of the nobility could now work for a living). People did not always accept reforms because they wanted to protect their traditional way of life. In some cases, there were popular protests, such as the Esquilache Riots. These riots were named after a government minister under Carlos III, who wanted to prohibit traditional long capes and wide-brimmed hats because they allowed criminals to conceal their faces and weapons. Bourbons also adopted measures relating to other social groups. In order to eliminate the power which they had over education, the Jesuits were expelled from Spain (1767).

Unit 2. The Early Modern Age: The “Ancient Régime” (1492-1789)

2.1.Importance

- Europeans’ discoveries

- Monarchs became more powerful

- Open economy: bourgeoisie*

Middle Ages Early Modern Age

5

th

-15th centuries 15th

-18th centuries

Weaker monarchies Stronger monarchies

Closed economy based on agriculture Open economy based on trade*

Clergy & nobility have all the power Nobility has social power  bourgeoisie* has

economic power

Romanesque & Gothic Renaissance & Baroque

2.2.The Age of Discovery

- New routes to East Asia, using caravels, compasses

- Consequences: Gold, silver, diseases, slaves, religion, language

2.3.Monarchy during the Early Modern Age

- Authoritarian monarchy: Spain: Catholic Monarchs

- Absolute monarchy

- Parliamentary monarchy: England: Civil War: Cromwell. 1689: Bill of Rights (no taxes without Parliament’s

consent)

2.4.Commercial capitalism and mercantilism

- The 16th century: commercial capitalism: The new world; banks; bills of exchange

- The 17th century: mercantilism: much gold & silver => crisis => mercantilism (you’re rich if you have silver &

gold) => protectionist policies to limit imports and encourage exports

2.5.Early Modern society

- First and Second Estates: clergy & nobility: no taxes, living by the rent from their lands

- Third Estate: They paid taxes

o Upper middle class: bourgeoisie: bankers, traders...

o Lower middle class: petit bourgeoisie: smiths...

o Campesino: jornaleros

2.6 Arte renacentista y barroco

- Renacimiento: Humanismo

- Barroco: Reforma y Contrarreforma

 La transformación del "Ancien Régime" (Antiguo Régimen)

3.1. El siglo XVIII: época de cambios. La razón, la ciencia y la educación son los líderes.

La burguesía se hizo más importante y trató de ganar más poder político.

3.2. La Ilustración: un cambio de pensamiento, querer acabar con la ignorancia y promover el progreso social, utilizando

razón, ciencia y educación: la "Enciclopedia" resumió el conocimiento de la ciencia, la filosofía, el arte y

Gramática (Diderot)

- Críticas y propuestas: Montesquieu (argumentó la separación de poderes); Voltaire (favorecido por un fuerte

monarquía, PERO basada en la existencia de parlamentos); Rousseau (introdujo la idea de soberanía popular)

- Physiocrats said that agriculture was the true source of wealth, rejecting Mercantilism, and believed that

the state should not interfere with trade and other economic activities (Adam Smith).

- Spain: Jovellanos, Conde de Floridablanca = > They tried to improve economic, social and cultural

conditions, after the declined during the Lesser Hapsburgs (Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II), publishing scientific

papeles, y el establecimiento de academias (Sociedades económicas de amigos del país), con la resistencia de la nobleza.

3.3. Ilustración en Europa, América y España

- Despotismo ilustrado: pretende combinar la monarquía absoluta con las ideas de la Ilustración: centralizado

gobiernos, pensadores ilustrados como ministros: Catalina la Grande de Rusia, José II de Austria, Federico II de

Prusia y Carlos III de España (Olavide y las nuevas poblaciones de Sierra Morena: San Carlos del Valle, La Carolina ...,

pueblos de repoblación). Mantuvo el sistema patrimonial y finalmente se derrumbó.

- Estados Unidos: En la Guerra de Independencia de los Estados Unidos, 13 colonias británicas serán libres, porque:

Ideológico (ideas de la Ilustración), Político (Gran Bretaña se negó a darles representación en el Parlamento), Socio-

economic (colonists wanted control over their own commercial activities).

New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Delaware,

Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia established themselves through a federal republic based

on popular sovereignty and the separation of powers.

-Spain: After Charles II: Philip of Anjou (supported by France and Crown of Castilla), and Archduke Charles of Austria

(supported by Austria, Great Britain and the Crown of Aragón). Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt: Felipe V, grandson of

El monarca de Francia se convirtió en rey de España, primer Borbón. Gran Bretaña recibió a Menorca y Gibraltar.

Las leyes de Castilla se impusieron a Aragón como castigo por no apoyar a Felipe V durante la Guerra de Sucesión.

España se dividió en provincias, con la figura de intendente.

3.4. Cambios economicos

- Agricultura: Cosecha mejorada debido a: rotación de cultivos, aumento de productividad de maquinaria, repoblación (Sierra

Morena), nuevos cultivos del Nuevo Mundo (papa, maíz)

- Artesanía: El sistema de producción nacional cobró importancia (textiles)

- Comercio: el comercio interno era limitado, por lo que mejoraron las carreteras y construyeron otras nuevas. El comercio internacional fue

controlado por los británicos entre Europa, África y América.

- España: Crecimiento en el siglo XVIII (Felipe V, Carlos III, Sociedades Económicas de amigos del país): Canal de Castilla,

repopulation Sierra Morena, textile production in Cataluña protected. Cádiz lost its monopoly on transatlantic trade.

3.5. Society 18th century: scientific advances, improvements in nutrition and hygiene, reduction of epidemics =>

1700-1800: 95 million people to 146 million in Europe.

- Estates: Clergy & nobility lost power, due to enlightenment thinkers. Bourgeoisie protested against nobility and

clergy’s privileges. Peasants did not improve.

- Daily life: Thinkers improved childcare and education, and criticized arranged marriages. Women continued to be

dependent on their fathers, brothers and husbands.

- Spain: Carlos III eliminated the legal dishonor of labour (members of the nobility could now work for a living).

People did not always accept reforms because they wanted to protect their traditional way of life. In some cases,

there were popular protests, such as the Esquilache Riots. These riots were named after a government minister

under Carlos III, who wanted to prohibit traditional long capes and wide-brimmed hats because they allowed

criminals to conceal their faces and weapons. Bourbons also adopted measures relating to other social groups. In

order to eliminate the power which they had over education, the Jesuits were expelled from Spain (1767).

Unit 2

1. The thirteen colonies. Northern colonies economy. Southern colonies economy. "No taxation without representation". Tea Act. Boston Tea Party. Virginia Declaration of Rights. American colonies supporters. Treaty of Versailles. Legislative power was held by two bodies in the new United States...

2. French revolution: origins (Social: inequalities; economy: bad harvest; Enlightenment: led people to revolution throw reason). Assembly of Notables. Estates-General. List of Grievances. National Assembly. Tennis Court Oath. National Constituent Assembly. Great Fear. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. First Constitution: 1791: only adult males over the age of 25, and with a certain level of income, could vote in elections. Radical revolutionaries and sans-culottes.

3. National Convention (Republic). Girondins. Jacobins. Marat is killed. Robespierre= dictatorship. Committee of Public Safety. New calendar.

Directory. Conspiracy of the Equals. Royalists. Coup d'etat: Consulate

4. Napoleonic Code. Concordat. Battle of Trafalgar. Battle of Austerlitz. Battle of Jena. Continental Blockade => Portugal did not accept. Napoleon decided to invade Portugal "passing" Spain => Independence war 1808. Going to Russia: Battle of Leipzig. Waterloo. Saint Helena.

5. Conservative Order (based on Monarchy, Internationalism, Congresses, explaining them)

Congress of Vienna. Metternich. France frontiers, barrier against expansion: the new Netherlands acquired Belgium. Holy Alliance

6. Revolutions and wars, due to: Liberalism and National movements

1820 and 1830 revolutions: Spain, Greece, France, Belgium, Poland

  Origins of working-class politics: The proletariat in GB began to organize itself in opposition to both factory owners and government (leaded by bourgeoisie).

o   1811: Luddites destroyed machines in factories, thinking that took jobs from workers.

o   1830: Trade Unions were founded (GB), demanding improved working conditions and better wages, joining types of work (miners…)

o   1838: Chartist movement demanded political changes: universal manhood suffrage, and Parliament to pass laws to improve workers’ conditions.

 

-          Left-wing ideologies: These ideologies promoted the interests of the working class, as well as offering alternatives to industrial capitalism and the class-based society.

o   Marxism: Developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels was based on:

1         Class struggle: Against capitalist oppressor, the wealthy bourgeoisie

2         Dictatorship of the proletariat: Getting political power, the dictatorship would control the economy and redistribute wealth equally.

3         Communism: Replacing the old class-based society, there would be a new communist society in which everyone would be equal

 

o   Anarchism: Developed by Mikhail Bakunin, who proposed an ideal society based on:

1         Individual freedom: Fighting against any authority (the state) that limited their freedom

2         Communes: Small independent groups, where all decisions would be taken by popular assemblies

3         Direct action: Defending their interests through actions, not political parties or elections, including violent attacks and even murder.

 7. Nationalism greatly influenced the political history of Europe in two different ways: Disintigration of states (nacionalismos centrípetos o desintegradores) (Hispanoamerica emancipation) vs. Unification of states (USA) (nacionalismos centrífugos o integradores).

Unification of Italy: Kingdom of Piedmont led the unification under king Vittorio Emanuele II, prime minister Cavour and revolutionary Garibaldi.

Phases: 

- Supported by France, "italians" won Austrians and Lombardy became part of Piedmont.

- Red shirts leaded by Garibaldi gained Naples and Sicily

- Italy helped Prussia (in war with Austria), and received Venice as present

- Piedmont occupied Rome, becaming capital of Italy

8. German Confederation. Two dominant powers. Custom union (Zollverein). The Crown of Germany (refused). But won with king and prime minister.

Phases:

- Prussia annexed Denmark

- War Austro-Prussian, forming the North German Confederation

- War Franco-Prussian, defeating France (Battle of Sedan). Alsace and Lorraine became German. The south Germany joined the rest of Germany.

- In 1871, the Second German Empire (SECOND REICH) was proclaimed. Wilhelm I was crowned Kaiser (in German, Caesar)

4.1. The beginning of the Modern Age

The enlightened despots failed to make the political, economic and social changes that Enlightenment had proposed: these changes were violently imposed by revolutionaries.

 

 

4.2. Causes of the French Revolution                                         

It’s the end of the absolute monarchy and the ESTATES SYSTEM of the Ancien Régime.

-          Influence of the Enlightenment: Thinkers said that all French subjects were free and equal under the law (liberté, egalité, fraternité ou la mort)

-          Political crisis: In France, the ‘Estates General’ brought together representatives of the three estates of the realm to advise the king on important issues, such as tax increases.

o   Clergy: 300 representatives (1 vote)

o   Nobility: 300 representatives (1 vote)

o   Third Estate (bourgeoisie) and peasantry: 600 representatives  (1 vote)

-          Economic crisis: French state: bankrupt (American War of Independence). The ministers suggested the increasing of taxes.

-          Social crisis: Nobility and clergy refused to pay the taxes that the king’s ministers were demanding.

Bourgeoisie wanted to participate in government; petit bourgeoisie passed economic difficulties by wars, higher taxes; peasantry too, and in addition, paying rent to clergy and nobility.

Meanwhile, they saw the luxurious lifestyle of the royal family and court.

 

4.3. Major events: Louis XVI decided to convoke the Estates General to ask for taxes, and this leads to the French Revolution (1789)

 

-          National Assembly: The Third Estate proposed “one man, one vote”. The king refused, so the Third Estate declared themselves the true representative and formed a National Assembly and demanded a constitution (Bill of Rights)

-          Constituent Assembly: The king agreed: The constituent assembly had to write a constitution. At the same time, the Bastille (political prison) was attacked, and riots broke out. Feudal Rights were abolished, and the Declaration of the Rights of MAN and the citizen were approved. Louis XVI tried to escape to Austria. The Constituent Assembly established a constitutional monarchy, popular sovereignty, the separation of powers and LIMITED MALE suffrage.

-          Legislative Assembly: The Constitution approved, it was necessary to adopt legal changes, and we can see two tendencies (Historic constants):

o   Girondins: The bourgeoisie, moderates, they helped the middle class, maintaining limited suffrage.

o   Jacobins: Radicals, wanting to abolish monarchy, expand the suffrage and help workers, so they were supported by “sans-culottes” (poorest people)

The king in prison, France is now a republic.

-          The Convention: Louis XVI executed. Europe was afraid and declared war on France. Jacobins took the government (Robespierre): this is a dictatorship: The Terror.

http://www.abc.es/cultura/20131218/abci-rostro-real-robespierre-marcadas-201312181300.html

-          The Directory: Moderate middle class took control to stop the violence, establishing the Directory, conservative government (five members).

-          The Consulate: By the way of the war against Europe, General Napoleon Bonaparte established a new government called the Consulate, with himself as First Consul, and other two consuls.

 

4.4. From revolution to empire: Napoleon increased his power: He is First consul FOR LIFE in 1802, and Emperor in 1804. His policy:

- Domestic policy: He established the Civil Code (we use much of it in Spain right now), equally to all citizens, in civil marriage, divorce, adoption and state education.

- International policy: In the lands that he conquered, Napoleon imposed enlightened and revolutionary policies, including constitutions that abolished absolute monarchy.

Napoleon won all allied countries against France, but Great Britain not: France was divided in two fronts: Russia and Spain, so he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo (1815): The Ancien Régime was re-established in Europe for a short period of time.

 

4.5. French Revolution and Napoleonic Empire: consequences: crisis and disintegration of the Ancien Régime.

Changes:

-          Political: Absolute monarchy was substituted by republic and constitutional monarchy, both based on popular sovereignty and separation of powers, with limited male suffrage and CIVIL RIGHTS (NEVER SEEN BEFORE). The differences between the groups made the emergence of political groups: POLITICAL PARTIES.

-          Economic: All citizens now had to pay taxes, including nobility and clergy. New laws guaranteed private property (civil right, with others) rights, and free trade was also guaranteed.

 

4.6. Spain

Alliances: France-Spain; Great Britain-Portugal. Napoleon promised Godoy (Carlos IV’s minister) to be a high charge in Portugal if he let him passing Spain to invade Portugal: After the Battle of Trafalgar (French and Spanish forces were defeated by the British), Spain (Godoy) signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau: the French forces occupied Spain and sent Carlos IV and family to Bayonne, where Carlos and son, Fernando, the future Fernando VII, renounced their rights to the Spanish throne in favour of Napoleon, who named his brother, Joseph, new king of Spain (1808).

 

-          Spanish war of independence: 2 may 1808 Madrid rose up against French troops. 5 june 1808, Santa Cruz de Mudela. 6 june 1808 Valdepeñas. Finally, Bailén was the defeated of the French army. Cádiz was the only city that did not fall to the French, who were finally defeated (1813) thanks to support from British forces (Duke of Wellington) and the Spanish’ guerrilla (Cura Merino, Espoz y Mina (el Empecinado), Chaleco, Juana la Galana…)

By this time, we have two governments: King Joseph I, who imposed the Bayonne Constitution (enlightened reforms: equality under the law, and EVERYONE had to pay taxes). But Joseph Bonaparte had some Spanish supporters (CONSTANTE HISTÓRICA), called “afrancesados”, although most Spanish people rejected his authority.

On the other hand, the Central Council coordinate local and provincial councils: for the first time, the Spanish people had their own elected representatives, in Cádiz, that is going to be replaced by the Regency Council, which then called together the Cortes.

 

Cortes de Cádiz: Approved the first Spanish constitution (1812)

o   Government: Constitutional monarchy

o   Power: popular sovereignty with limited male suffrage

o   State religion: Catholicism

o   Separation of powers:

1         Executive (monarch)

2         Legislative (monarch and Cortes)

3         Judicial (Courts of Justice, judges)

o   Civil rights (equality under the law, privacy, freedom of press, prohibition of torture)

 

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfA2l2eERzI

 

 

4.7. Life during the revolution and empire

- Family:

                -Divorce was legalized.

                -The rights of children: inheritance rights for who were born outside of marriage.

- Daily life:

                -A new calendar was created, with no religion references.

                -The months were named reflecting meteorological conditions: Ventôse (Windy), although Napoleon restored the Christian calendar.

- Women:

                - Women participated in the revolution, and demanded their part in politics.

                - They didn’t be allowed because they feared a radical change in family structure.

                - Finally, they continued to be wives and mothers.

- Technological advances:

                - France adopted the metric system.

                - The French army used carriages as ambulances.

                - The French army used metal tins to keep their food fresh for longer.

 

QUESTIONS

It’s the antecedent of industrial revolution: craftsmen working

and selling their own products at home.

 

 

Unit 3

1. How, where, when? Two stages (18th century and 19th century). The demographic revolution: aspects (nutrition, personal and public hygiene, public health, epidemics). The agricultural revolution: Farming techniques (four-field system, and manure, iron plough and new machines. mechanical seeders, harvesters), land ownership and use (private property), livestock farming.

Conditions in Britain favouring economic growth:

Demographic growth (seen above)

Agricultural growth (seen above)

Extensive markets (colonies)

New mentality (bourgeoisie + Parliament)

Abundance of iron and coal

Industrial Revolution

Utopian socialism

2. Factories. Steam engine. Division of labour. Technical innovations in spinning. The textile boom.

The iron industry. Adam Smith. Economic freedom. Invisible hand.

3. The steam engine was soon used in navigation... The railway was made possible by two advances... Stephenson. Liverpool-Manchester 1830. Barcelona-Mataró 1848 The Trans-Siberian Railway. The impact of the transport revolution (trade, specialisation, mining, metallurgy, iron industry, daily life

4. New energy sources and industries: Electricity, petroleum. The iron and steel industry, the chemical industry and the elctrical industry. First industrial revolution leader: England. Second Industrial Revolution leaders: US and Germany. Corporations and shares: stockmarket and shareholders. Banks and financial capitalism.

New systems of production: Taylorism (tasks and workers in each part), assembly line, mass production. Corporate groups: Cartel, Holding, Trust (define and explain them)

5. The industrial revolution in Europe: countries and features of each one (Belgium, Germany, France and Sweden). The US became a great industrial power due to several factors: agricultural, resurces, specialised production, large domestic market & innovation)

Japan: ended feudalism (Meiji era): families converted into corporations (Mitsubishi). helped by the state. Industries

Russia: the state helping enterprises. Industries

6. Causes for the population growth: summary. Urbanisation. Transport revolution > migrations

7. Three social classes: upper class, middle class, lower class. One could move from one class to another. Principle of judicial equality. In practice, inequality (women, economic inequality).

Aristocracy declined. In contrast, bourgeois values.

Petite bourgeoisie or middle class, also bourgeois values. Culture spreading: readers, cafes, casinos, social clubs.

Lower class: peasants (day labourers, serfs). Proletariat. House servants.

8. The labour movement: Luddism (Ned Ludd, destroying machines). Chartism (political goals, labour rights, universal suffrage). Trade Unions (mutuals, rights of assembly, strike)

Marxism and anarchism seen before

Summary

1. How, where, when? Two stages (18th century and 19th century). The demographic revolution: aspects (nutrition, personal and public hygiene, public health, epidemics). The agricultural revolution: Farming techniques (four-field system, and manure, iron plough and new machines. mechanical seeders, harvesters), land ownership and use (private property), livestock farming.

Conditions in Britain favouring economic growth:

Demographic growth (seen above)

Agricultural growth (seen above)

Extensive markets (colonies)

New mentality (bourgeoisie + Parliament)

Abundance of iron and coal

Industrial Revolution

Utopian socialism

2. Factories. Steam engine. Division of labour. Technical innovations in spinning. The textile boom.

The iron industry. Adam Smith. Economic freedom. Invisible hand.

3. The steam engine was soon used in navigation... The railway was made possible by two advances... Stephenson. Liverpool-Manchester 1830. Barcelona-Mataró 1848 The Trans-Siberian Railway. The impact of the transport revolution (trade, specialisation, mining, metallurgy, iron industry, daily life

4. New energy sources and industries: Electricity, petroleum. The iron and steel industry, the chemical industry and the elctrical industry. First industrial revolution leader: England. Second Industrial Revolution leaders: US and Germany. Corporations and shares: stockmarket and shareholders. Banks and financial capitalism.

New systems of production: Taylorism (tasks and workers in each part), assembly line, mass production. Corporate groups: Cartel, Holding, Trust (define and explain them)

5. The industrial revolution in Europe: countries and features of each one (Belgium, Germany, France and Sweden). The US became a great industrial power due to several factors: agricultural, resurces, specialised production, large domestic market & innovation) 

Japan: ended feudalism (Meiji era): families converted into corporations (Mitsubishi). helped by the state. Industries

Russia: the state helping enterprises. Industries

6. Causes for the population growth: summary. Urbanisation. Transport revolution > migrations

7. Three social classes: upper class, middle class, lower class. One could move from one class to another. Principle of judicial equality. In practice, inequality (women, economic inequality). 

Aristocracy declined. In contrast, bourgeois values. 

Petite bourgeoisie or middle class, also bourgeois values. Culture spreading: readers, cafes, casinos, social clubs. 

Lower class: peasants (day labourers, serfs). Proletariat. House servants.

8. The labour movement: Luddism (Ned Ludd, destroying machines). Chartism (political goals, labour rights, universal suffrage). Trade Unions (mutuals, rights of assembly, strike)

Marxism and anarchism seen before

Unit 4 ¿Cuántas Constituciones ha habido en España? (Historia del Constitucionalismo español)

1. Treaties San Ildefonso. Treaty Fontainebleau. Mutiny Aranjuez. Bayonne abdication. War of Independence, afrancesados, fernandinos. Guerrillas.

2. Parliament of Cádiz. Junta Central Suprema > Constituent Parliament. Cádiz> liberals, conservatives and American colonies.

Constitution of 1812, the first one in Spain, la Pepa 19th march: national sovereignty, hereditary monarchy, separation of powers: legislative king and a single chamber, executive king appointing, judicial, Catholicism.

3. Conservatives and liberals. Pronunciamientos. The Old Regime restored. Sexenio Absolutista. Rafael del Riego. Trienio Liberal. Moderates and Radicals. The Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis.

Ley Sálica. Pragmatic Sanction. Carlos de Borbón. First Carlist War. Liberals, Isabel. Carlists, absolutism. Embrace of Vergara.

4. Creoles. Liberalism and nationalism. US and French Revolution. Britain. José de San Martín. Simón Bolívar. Gran Colombia. Agustín de Iturbide. Perú. Bolivia. Cuba, Puerto Rico.

5. Regents. Desamortización Mendizábal. Constitution 1837. María Cristina. Espartero. Narváez. Isabel, queen (13). Constitution 1845, moderate

Progressives (democrats, republicans). O'Donnell, Vicalvarada. Bienio Progresista. Desamortización Madoz. Liberal Union.

6. Pact of Ostende. Serrano, Prim. La Gloriosa. Sexenio Democrático. Constitution 1869. Amadeo of Savoy. Prim.

The First Spanish Republic: Cantonal Revolution, Third Carlist War, Cuba. Pronunciamientos: Parliament dissolved, Martínez Campos restored the Bourbon Dynasty.

7. Bourbon Restoration. Constitution 1876, moderate. Turno pacífico: conservatives, Cánovas del Castillo. Liberals, Sagasta. Political manipulation. Caciquismo. Pucherazo.. Socialists. Nationalists. Ararchists.

8. Desamortización. Expropriation. Two campaigns of desamortización. Mendizábal. Madoz.

Some countries became industral. Spain? no, because... Energy sources, transport infrastructures, capital (lack of state support), domestic market.

Industrial developed in some areas: textile, iron and steele, transport, banking, stock exchange.

9. Three social classes: upper, middle, lower. Social mobility. The labour movement. Early luddite.

Anarchism. Fanelli. FRE. Anarchism spreading. CNT. PSOE. UGT.

Unit 5 Imperialism, war and revolution

1. The great powers in the late 19th century

Authoritarian political systems

Liberal political systems

Russianisation

US: American Civil War

Japan westernised

2. The rise of imperialism

Define imperialism

Pioneers of imperialism

Factors: Economic and demographic (industrialisation and migration); religious factors (conversion, missions); political factors (strategic goals 'geopolitics', competition, prestige); ideological and scientific factors (racism, exploration -geographic societies-)

3. The great colonial empires

British: India, Suez canal, southern Africa

French empire: Algeria, Tunisia, Indochina (today Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia); Morocco protectorate

Germany and Italy; Belgium

Russia: Siberia

US: Philippines, Puerto Rico, Cuba (spheres of influence)

Japan: Formosa (Taiwan), Korea, Manchuria

The Berlin Conference

4. Colonial rule

Types of rule: Colonies, protectorates, spheres of influence

Economic exploitation: plantation agriculture, indigenous peoples (cheap labour)

Social and cultural effects: demography, traditional society, culture (acculturation)

5. Causes World War I (1914-1918), Great War

Bismarckian Alliance System: isolate France, Balkans

Dual Alliance > Triple Alliance

Armed Peace

Triple Alliance (Ger. Aus-Hun. Italy) vs Triple Entente (Fr. Br. Russ)

Algeciras Conference (Fr, Sp, Morocco). Eastern Question (Serbia, Bulgaria, Russia; Austria-Hungary)

Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Black Hand. Shot. Austria-Hungary vs Serbia. Russia with Serbia. Germany vs. Russia and ally, Fr. Germany invaded Belgium to attack Fr. Br is friend of Belgium and declared war on Germany and Austr-Hung. I WW had begun

6. The course of the War

Triple Alliance (Ger. Aus-Hun. Italy) - Italy + Ottoman Empire + Bulgaria

Triple Entente (Fr. Br. Russ) + Italy + Romania + Greece + US + China + Japan

War of movement: Schlieffen Plan: Germany conquerig France quickly and then Russia (Battle of Marne stopping the Germans by Fr)

War of positions: trenches, machine guns, lasted the war. Battle of Verdun. Battle of the Same.

Other fronts: Mediterranean (Gallipolli). Africa. Asia. Near East.

1917: Bolshevik Revolution (Russia withdraw the conflict) >1918: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (peace Russia and Germany)

7. Consequences.

Human: 15-20 million people died

Paris Peace Conference: Versailles (Germany), Saint-Germain (Austria), Trianon (Hungary), Sèvres (Turkey), Neuilly (Bulgaria), forcing the defeated countries to accept their conditions.

Paris Peace: main goals: prevent resurgence of Germany, achieve a balance of power, isolate Russia (Communism)

League of Nations (Fourteen Points, Woodrow Wilson). Failed, because it was non representative (especially Germ)

Territorial changes: Germany, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empire ceased to exist:

Germany lost colonies

Alsace-Lorraine to Fr

Aust.Hung > Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia

Ottoman Emp: Syria to Fr, Iraq & Palestine to Br

Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, independent from Russia

Poland enlarged through Russia, Austria and Germ.

Romania enlarged through Austr.Hung

Other consequences

Diktat, War reparations, bitterness

8. Russian Revolution

Tsar. Absolute monarch. Duma. Proletariat. Socialist Revolutionary Party. Cosntitutional Democratic Party. Marxist Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party (Mensheviks and Bolsheviks)

Bloody Sunday. Soviets. October Manifesto.

9. Revolutions 1917. Russian Civil War

Petrograd = Saint Petersburg. Slogan Peace, Bread and Land. Lenin April Theses. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: changes. White Army, Red Army. War Communism. Communist Party > dictatorship. Spartacist Revolt.

5. Imperialism, war and revolution

1. Great powers late 19th century: 

- authoritarian political systems: Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

- Liberal political systems: Br and Fr

- Russian autocracy: ethnic diversity and Russianisation.

- US: american civil war

- Japan Meiji

2. Imperialism: definition

Economic and demographic factors: industrialisation and migration

Religious factors: conversion, missions

Political factors: strategic goals, competition, prestige

Ideological and scientific factors: racism, exploration

3. Great colonial empires

British Empire

French Empire

Germany and Italy. Belgium

Russia

US

Japan

Berlin Conference

4. Colonial rule

Three main types of rule: colonies, protectorates, spheres of influence

Plantation agriculture. Minerals. Indigenous people: cheap labour.

Social and cultural effects: Demography: colonisation had a disastrous demographic impact. Traditional society: natives were considered infrerior and marginalised. Culture: acculturation.

5. Causes World War I (1914-1918), Great War

Bismarckian Alliance System: isolate France, Balkans

Dual Alliance > Triple Alliance

Armed Peace

Triple Alliance (Gr. Aus-Hun. Italy) vs Triple Entente (Fr. Br. Russ)

Algeciras Conference (Fr, Sp, Morocco). Eastern Question (Serbia, Bulgaria, Russia; Austria-Hungary)

Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Black Hand. Shot. Austria-Hungary vs Serbia. Russia with Serbia. Germany vs. Russia and ally, Fr. Germany invaded Belgium to attack Fr. Br is friend of Belgium and declared war on Germany and Austr-Hung. I WW had begun

6. The course of the War

Triple Alliance (Ger. Aus-Hun. Italy) - Italy + Ottoman Empire + Bulgaria

Triple Entente (Fr. Br. Russ) + Italy + Romania + Greece + US + China + Japan

War of movement: Schlieffen Plan: Germany conquerig France quickly and then Russia (Battle of Marne stopping the Germans by Fr)

War of positions: trenches, machine guns, lasted the war. Battle of Verdun. Battle of the Same.

Otros frentes: Mediterráneo (Gallipolli). África. Asia. Cerca del este.

1917: Revolución bolchevique (Rusia retira el conflicto)> 1918: Tratado de Brest-Litovsk (paz Rusia y Alemania)

7. Consecuencias.

Humanos: 15-20 millones de personas murieron

Conferencia de Paz de París: Versalles (Alemania), Saint-Germain (Austria), Trianon (Hungría), Sèvres (Turquía), Neuilly (Bulgaria), obligando a los países derrotados a aceptar sus condiciones.

Paz de París: objetivos principales: prevenir el resurgimiento de Alemania, lograr un equilibrio de poder, aislar a Rusia (comunismo)

Liga de Naciones (catorce puntos, Woodrow Wilson). Falló, porque no era representativo (especialmente Germ)

Cambios territoriales: Alemania, el Imperio Austro-Húngaro y Otomano dejaron de existir:

Alemania perdió colonias

Alsacia-Lorena al P.

Aust.Hung> Austria, Hungría, Checoslovaquia y Yugoslavia

Imperio Otomano: Siria a Fr, Irak y Palestina a Fr

Finlandia, Estonia, Letonia y Lituania, independientes de Rusia

Polonia se amplió a través de Rusia, Austria y Alemania.

Rumania ampliada a través de Austr.Hung

Otras consecuencias

Diktat, reparaciones de guerra, amargura

8. Revolución rusa

Zar. Monarca absoluto. Duma. Proletariado. Partido Socialista Revolucionario. Partido Demócrata Constitucional. Partido obrero socialdemócrata ruso marxista (mencheviques y bolcheviques)

Domingo Sangriento. Soviets. Manifiesto de octubre.

9. Revolutions 1917. Guerra civil rusa

Petrogrado = San Petersburgo. Lema Paz, Pan y Tierra. Tesis de abril de Lenin. Tratado de Brest-Litovsk: cambios. Ejército Blanco, Ejército Rojo. Comunismo de guerra. Partido Comunista> dictadura. Revuelta espartaquista.