2º ESO signed.docx

1. The Early Middle Ages 1 The Early Middle Ages. New power sites

2. Feudal Europe 2 Feudalism. Rights and inequalities

3. The High Middle Ages 3 Renaissance of european cities

4. Culture and art in the Middle Ages 4 Al-Andalus and the christian kingdoms 


5. Al-Andalus 5 Modern Age. Discoveries

6. The Hispanic Christian Kingdoms 6 Modern Age. New mentality

7. Territorial organisation - Inequality through Geography 7 Hispanic Monarchy. A world empire

8. World Population - Demographic challenges in XXI century 8 Baroque. New superpowers


9. Cities 9. Demographic challenges in XXI century. 8. World Population

10. World population and cities 10. Inequality through Geography. 7. Territorial organisation

11. Europe: population and cities 11 A world of cities. 9. Cities. 10. World population and cities

12. Spain: territory, population and cities 12 Geopolítics, conflicts and cooperation. 11. Europe. 12. Spain


La columna izquierda corresponde a los temas que están desarrollados en esta misma página.

La columna derecha contiene los temas que hay que ir desarrollando en este curso.


1. The Early Middle Ages



1. Barbarian: Non roman people.

 Huns: Nomadic people in the Asian steppe.

 Germanic: People who lived in tribes. They had a chieftain elected in Assembly.

Emperor Theodosius: two parts: The Western Roman Empire, whose capital was Rome, and the Eastern Roman Empire, whose capital was Constantinople.


The Eastern Roman Empire became known as the Byzantine Empire, lasting for another 1000 years. 

Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. AD 476. Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus, the last western emperor.


2. The Germanic Kingdoms: Smaller kingdoms (which and where)

Franks in Gaul (France)

Visigoths and Suevi in the Iberian Peninsula

Ostrogoths and Lombards in Italy

Angles and Saxons in Britain

Kings were helped by... a council. 

New languages in Romanised regions: Spanish, Catalan, Galician, French, Portughese and Italian were based on Latin.

German, Dutch and English were based on Germanic.


The new laws were a combination of Roman law and Germanic customs.

The Germanic tribes were pagan, but many of them converted to Arianism, which was a Christian heresy. The Germanic kingdoms converted to Roman Catholic Christianity.



3. The Visigoths. 

Battle of Adrianople: the visigoths defeated the emperor Valens: Sack of Rome, destroying the city. Visigoth's capital in Hispania was Toledo, with kings Leovigild, Reccared and Recceswinth.

The king was advised by a council: Aula Regia. 

The provinces were governed by dukes and counts.

Religious and political decisions were taken at assemblies.

The most important political positions were held by nobles and clergymen. 

Most of the population were peasants. There were also slaves. The main economic activity was agriculture, and also cattle raising and artisans or craftsmen.


4. Eastern Roman Empire: Constantinople. This empire is called Byzantium. Code of Justinian was a compilation of the laws. Basileus is the name of Emperor. State officials conducted government business. Diplomats represented Byzantium in other territories. 1453: Turks conquered the Byzantine Empire. 

Political leader: basileus

Religious leader: Patriarch of Constantinople

Major cities were Constantinople, Thessaloniki, Alexandria, Damascus.

Division of Christianity (East-West Schism). 

Iconoclasm: images forbidden. 

Greek replaced Latin as the main language of the Byzantine Empire.


5. Origins of Islam: Monotheistic: three religions: Jews, Christians, and Muslims.

Hegira is when Muhammad escaped to Medina, the beginning of Muslim calendar: 622. 

Quran is Muhammad's teachings written in a book. The five pillars of Islam are: Faith (there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet); Prayer (five times a day, leaded by an imam from a mosque); Pilgrimage (travel to Mecca at least once a life); Fasting (not to eat or drink during Ramadan); Charity (feed the poor).


6. The spread of Islam. Jihad or holy war is the spread of Islam around the world. Caliphate is the members of Muhammad's family ruling from Medina, with religious and political power. The Umayyad family made the caliph a hereditary ruler, with Damascus as new capital, and the provinces divided into provinces or Emirates. 

The Abbasid family moved the capital to Baghdad. In 1258 a Mongol army sacked Baghdad and killed the last Abbasid caliph.

Different officials (viziers (ministers), qadis (judges), walis (governors), emirs (from the caliph's familiy; governor like a wali, but with military authority)).


7. Islamic society: 

Different classes:

-Ruling aristocracy: Arabs. Large landowners with political and economic power.

-Other influential groups: Small landowners, merchants, artisans, wealthy, but without political power.

-The lower class: servants, landless peasants and poor artisans. Majority of the population.


Islamic art:

Islam did not allow artists to represent the human body.

In architecture, brick, plaster and wood were used. They built columns, pillars and arches (horseshoe and lober arches). Buildings covered by domes and flat wooden roofs.

Plaster, ceramics and paint were used to decorate buildings with geometric patterns, floral motifs (arabesque) and inscriptions.





2. Feudal Europe



A Frankish kingdom in the present-day France. Charles Martel (Mayor of the Palace) defeated the Muslims in Battle of Poitiers.

Pepin the Short was son of Martel. Charlemagne, grandson of Martel.

The Pope crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor, succesor to the Emperors of the Western Roman Empire, and so that is called Carolingian Empire.

The Empire was organised into counties and marches:


The empire lasted for a few years after Charlemagne's death, but the Treaty of Verdun divided it into three parts, which were ruled by Charlemagne's grandsons:


By the late 9th century, the two most important succesors kingdoms to the Carolingian Empire were the Kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire.





In the 9th and 10th centuries, there was a second wave of invasions in Europe.

After the break of the Carolingian Empire Europe was divided into many small states.

During the 9th and 10th centuries, monarchs had little effective power.

The failure of the European monarchs to resist the second wave of invasions effectively led to the emergence of powerful regional lords who could offer protection to the local population.


It is the main political, social and economic system in Europe between the 10th and 13th centuries.

In a ceremony of homage, the vassal promised his lord personal loyalty and military assistance.

In return, the lord gave the vassal a fief, which was usually a large piece of land.

This created a network of feudal ties that connected the nobility to the monarchy.

The demesne was the land that the lord used directly: castle, farmland, fields...

The lord also granted plots of land to free peasants.

The lords owned the mill, the press and the oven, which the peasants had to pay to use. Merchants had to pay a toll when they crossed land or bridges on a fief.


Medieval society was organised into three social groups, called estates:

Except for the clergy, people stayed in the same estate for all their lives. The nobility and the clergy were the privileged estates: they did not have to pay taxes or do manual labour.

The upper nobility were great feudal lords with castles and large estates; they were Duke, Count or Marquis.

The lower nobility were knights (hidalgos in Spain) who sometimes owned only their horses and weapons.




The Crusades were military expeditions to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims.

The military orders (Knights Templar or the Knights of Saint John) were made up of monks who were also warriors. In Spain: Montesa, Alcántara, Calatrava, Santiago.

Following the conquest of Jerusalem, many Christians made pilgrimages there to visit the place where Jesus had died. Other important places of pilgrimage were Rome (where Saint Peter was martyred and the Pope lived) and Santiago de Compostela (where the apostle James was believed to be buried).



3. The High Middle Ages


Introduction

The High Middle Ages were a period of growth and change in the 12th and 13th centuries: the economy improved, the cities grew, and cathedrals and universities were founded.

Trade increased. There were two main sea routes:

Merchants met regularly at trade fairs, where products were exchanged: Champagne in France, Medina del Campo, Valladolid.

The expansion of trade created the need for new ways to manage money. Important advances were made that later developed into banking.


There were three main reasons for the growth of cities:


There were great differences between city inhabitants:


In regions with Jewish and Muslim minorities these groups lived in separate neighbourhoods: the Jewish quarter and the Moorish quarter.

The city inhabitants fought to gain the right to govern themselves, so the king could granted them a charter (or fuero), a legal document that established self-government for a city.

As the population grew, a city hall or council was formed, made up of councillors and headed by a mayor.


Medieval cities were surrounded by high walls, whose gates were closed at night. 

Main buildings: cathedral, city hall, palaces, covered markets, hospitals and schools.

Each city was divided into parishes or districts which were named after their patron saint.

Cities were very unhealthy: People threw their rubbish in the street. All this made desease widespread.

There were three stages in becoming an artisan:

Artisans of the same trade formed craft guilds together. There was a guild for shoemakers, other for weavers, blacksmith...

If a member died the guild looked after his wife and children.


There were important advances in education, literature and philosophy. The culture of the High Middle Ages is often called the 12th century Renaissance because of its outstanding achievements.

There were two types of school which were only for boys:

With the rise of schools, teachers and students began to form associations in order to defend their autonomy and privileges; this was how universities began: Bologna, Paris, Oxford, Salamanca...

Universities were divided into four faculties: Liberal Arts, Medicine, Law and Theology.

Thomas Aquinas was inspired by Aristotle, and tried to reconcile reason with religious faith. 


New genres appeared:

Many of these works were written in vernacular languages, like Spanish or Italian, which were the languages spoken by most of the population. However, Latin was still widely used in the Church and the universities.


In this period, several monarchies, like France, England, Portugal, Castile and Aragon emerged as leading European powers.

The Holy Roman Emperor, who was the head of a number of smaller independent states, lost much of his authority.

In some kingdoms, such as Castile, parliaments simply approved the monarch's decisions. But they had more power in other kingdoms, like Aragon, where the king often needed to look for their agreement.

The king of England held land in France, and his claim to the French throne led to a long series of wars called the Hundred Years' War. 


The Western Schism was a crisis that divided the Catholic Church. 

From 1378, there were two, and later three, competing popes at the same time. This crisis was political as well as religious because each candidate was supported by rival European monarchs. Martin V was finally elected as the only Pope, but the prestige of the Papacy had been badly affected.


After a period of growth during the High Middle Ages (11th - 13th centuries), there was a deep crisis in the 14th century that affected agriculture, demography and the economy. This period is usually called the Late Middle Ages.


Agriculture:


Social tensions:


Demographic disaster: the Black Death:


A terrible bacterial disease called the plague spread through Europe in 1348. Mortality was extremely high because the population at the time was badly nourished, and did not live in hygienic conditions. This outbreak of plague was so destructive that it became known as the Black Death.

The plague originated in Asia and came to Europe on Genoese merchant ships. It spread rapidly throughout the continent. Cities were the most affected, as population was dense and the disease was spread through fleas and rats.

Symptoms of plague included high fever, shivering and swelling of the neck. Victims died after a few days.

Over five years, as many as 25 million people probably died -one third of the population of Europe-. To make matters worse, there were successive waves of the plague until 1490.



4. Culture and art in the Middle Ages



Romanesque and Gothic


Romanesque and Gothic art developed in different settings:

The Romanesque style was also characteristic of many of the churches found along pilgrimage routes, especially the routes to Rome and Santiago de Compostela.


New buildings included city halls, covered markets, houses for wealthy merchants, universities, and especially the spectacular Gothic cathedrals.


Churches, cathedrals and monasteries were the main Romanesque buildings.

Architects needed to adapt their techniques so that they could build large buildings with heavy stone roofs. They revived Roman techniques, such as the barrel vault and dome, in order to reduce the weight of the roofs.

The roofs rested on round arches, and thick columns and pillars. However, it was necessary to make the buildings even stronger. Architects used very thick walls, reinforced the walls with buttresses.

Click here to see a Romanesque Cathedral


Romanesque churches were designed with the form of a Latin cross, symbolising the cross of Jesus.


Romanesque sculptures were used as a teaching tool. Most people were illiterate in the Middle Ages and so they could not read the Bible.

Romanesque sculpture had the following characteristics:


Types of sculptures

Most romanesque sculptures were reliefs.


Romanesque painting


Types of painting


Gothic architecture had a religious purpose, but it was also used to demostrate the power and wealth of the cities.


Gothic cathedrals were built using new techniques:


Click here to see a Gothic cathedral


Like Romanesque sculpture, Gothic sculpture had a religious and educational purpose, and so it continued with traditional subjects like Christ on the Cross or the Virgin and Child.

Gothic sculpture was less severe and rigid than Romanesque sculpture. Figures were sculpted with curved lines to give them movement, and make them more realistic. 


Gothic churches and cathedrals had reduced wall space because they had such large windows, so there were fewer murals in many regions, although a tradition of mural painting was mantained in Italy and Spain.

The main characteristics of Gothic painting were the following:



Unit 5 Al-Andalus


The Muslims defeated the Visigoth King Roderic in the Battle of Guadalete (711). Musa and his leading general Tariq did not hand power over to their visigoth allies.

The Muslims called their new territory Al-Andalus, and made Córdoba its capital. Initially, the emirate of Al-Andalus was dependent on the Umayyad caliphate in Damascus.


Most members of the rulling Umayyad family in Damascus were killed when the new Abbasid dynasty took power: an Umayyad prince called Abd al-Rahman escaped to the Iberian Peninsula. As Abd al-Rahman I, he founded the independent Emirate of Córdoba (756), with religious supremacy as the caliph.


The Caliphate of Córdoba was created by Abd al-Rahman III (929), with supreme political and religious authority, through a chief minister (hajib), ministers (viziers) and provincial governors (walis).


Hisham II was only eleven years old when he became caliph in 976, and a general named Al-Mansur became the real ruler of Al-Andalus.


Al-Andalus split into small independent Muslim states called taifas.

The larger taifas like Sevilla, Toledo, Badajoz and Zaragoza fought with each other, and also tried to take control of the smaller taifas.

The Christian kingdoms in the north attacked the taifas and forced their rulers to pay parias or tribute. 

The Muslims called for help from the Almoravids, who had established a Berber empire in northern Africa.

From the 11th century, Al-Andalus was continually on the defensive as a result of the political fragmentation of the Muslim states and the rise of the Christian kingdoms. Twice, Al-Andalus received military assistance from Berber Muslim empires in North Africa: Almoravids and Almohads.

In the13th century, the Christians achieved a great victory in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), getting the whole Peninsula apart from Granada.

The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada was weakened by internal conflict between noble families and the Nasrid dynasty. Finally, it was conquered by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492.


The conquerors and their descendants became the most powerful groups in Andalusi society:


In the 10th century, Córdoba was the most important city in Al-Andalus. Sevilla, Toledo, Valencia and Murcia were other important cities.


Al-Andalus had a prosperous economy based on agriculture, craftwork and trade.


Andalusi architects built mosques, public baths, castles and palaces.

Islam prohibited the representation of people and animals. Instead, they used plant motifs, geometric patterns and verses from the Quran.


In Al-Andalus, economic prosperity and intellectual tolerance allowed cultural activities to flourish:



Unit 6 The Hispanic Christian kingdoms


From 711, the Muslims conquered most of the Iberian Peninsula. A group of small Christian states were the origin of the later Hispanic kingdoms:

Al-Andalus was stronger up to the 10th century: from then on, the Christian kings grew in power and began to take Muslim territories.


A visigoth noble, Pelayo, defeated the Muslims in the battle of Covadonga (722), considered the start of the Christian Reconquest of Al-Andalus. 

Oviedo became its capital city. Alfonso III took advantage of conflicts in the emirate of Córdoba to advance into the Duero valley.

The capital was moved to the city of León and the kingdom became known as the Kingdom of León.


The Pyrenees formed part of the Carolingian Empire after Charlemagne established the Hispanic March as a defensive frontier region to defend his empire against the Muslims.

When the Carolingian Empiere broke apart, three separate regions developed: Navarra, Aragón and the Catalan counties.



León and Castile


León and Castile were sometimes ruled by the same monarch, and sometimes formed separate kingdoms.

Castile was near the frontier with Al-Andalus so it was a zone of conflict where numerous castles were built. Count Fernán González established his authority over all Castile but he was still a vassal of the king of León.

Fernando I became king of Castile and two years later became king of León.


Fernando III inherited the Kingdom of Castile, and the Kingdom of León from his father. From 1230 onwards, the two kingdoms were united under the name of the Crown of Castile.

It played a key role in the Reconquest. Portugal separated from the rest of the kingdom, becoming independent in the mid-12th century.

 

Navarre

 

The last King of the Jimena dynasty was Sancho VII the Strong, who died without descendants. After that, new dynasties with links to France came to power. In 1512, Navarre was conquered by Fernando the Catholic.

 

From the Kingdom of Aragón to the Crown of Aragón

 

In 1137, Ramón Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona, became engaged to marry Petronila of Aragón, who was just a year old. This united Aragón and the Catalan counties, and led to the creation of the Crown of Aragón.


3. Reconquest and settlement

 

Over many centuries, the Christian kingdoms expanded southwards by conquering Muslim lands. This process was called the Reconquest, because the Christian kings believed that they were the heirs of the Visigoths, and the Iberian Peninsula belonged to them historically.

The muslim rulers made tribute payments (parias) to reduce Christian attacks. The Christian kings used the gold that they received to build castles and form strong armies.

Castile and León advanced beyond the Central System.

Aragón advanced into the Ebro river valley.

The Christian kingdoms united their forces and won a great victory against the muslims in the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, 1212. The fall of Al-Andalus began.

 

Settlement in the conquered territories

 

As the kingdoms advanced southwards, Christian populations settled in the new territories.

Repopulation

New towns were granted charters (fueros) which defined their rights and privileges. The lands was mainly farmed by free peasants, who received plots of land in exchange for settling in an área.

Land distribution

Muslim land was mainly given to nobles in return for their role in the Reconquest, creating large estates, which sometimes stayed in their families for several generations.

The military orders

In some dangerous frontier áreas, the Christian kings gave the military orders of warrior-monks the responsibility for conquering and defending territories. The most powerful orders in Castile were Alcántara, Calatrava and Santiago, while Montesa in Aragón.


4. The Crown of Castile

 

The territories that formed the Crown of Castile were governed by the same institutions, and they shared the same laws. The monarch could declare war, make laws and act as a judge.

-        Parliaments (Cortes) was made up of noblemen, the clergy and representatives from cities, discussing new taxes proposed by the King.

-        The Royal Council (Consejo Real) advised the King.

-        The High Court (Audiencia) held judicial authority.

 

 Municipal government:

 

-        In Castilian cities, a council (concejo) was the main governing body. At first the councils included all residents, but they were later governed by councillors (regidores) who held their positions for life.

-        Other local officials included the mayor (alcalde).

-        In the late 14th century, a new figure appeared: the chief magistrate (corregidor), representing the King in cities, with military and judicial functions.

 

Economy

 

Sheep grazing, during the Reconquest, did not require a large work force and the sheep could be moved rapidly to a safe place.

Transhumance (the seasonal movement of sheep) developed on a very large scale. Sheep grazed in northern Castile in the summer, and were then taken south along routes called cañadas in the Winter.

Merino sheep was introduced (high quality of wool). Ships took merino wool from Cantabrian ports to Flanders.

There were frequent disputes between crop farmers and sheep ranchers. The Mesta granted many privileges by the monarch to the sheep ranchers.

 

5. The Crown of Aragón

 

It was made up of the Catalan counties and the kingdoms of Aragón, Valencia and Mallorca, being a federation, and each territory maintained its own laws, institutions and customs.

The King was at the head of all institutions, but he had les power than in Castile. Each territory had its own parliament, or Cortes, and the King needed its approval to raise taxes or pass laws.

The Generalitat was administrative. The Justicia defended people’s rights in Aragón.

From the late 13th century, Pedro the Great conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Naples. The Crown of Aragón became a major Mediterranean power.

The economy

Aragón was essentially rural. The economy consisted of agriculture and livestock farming.

Catalonia developed a manufacturing industry that specialised in textiles, ironwork and naval construction.

Valencia emerged as an important trading centre following an economic crisis in Barcelona.

Merchants from Catalonia, Valencia and Mallorca set up consulates of the sea, offices that settled disputes between merchants, and their rules were set up in the Book of the Consulate of the Sea.

 

6. The late Middle Ages

 

Conflicts in Castile

Economic crisis

Bad harvests, famines and epidemics in the 14th century.

Peasants revolts

With fewer people, nobles raised taxes on the peasantry, which led to peasants revolts against the nobility.

Noble rebellions

The nobles pressured the King to be given more land. The King Pedro I was killed by his brother, Enrique II, helped by nobles, and this is the beginning of the Trastámara dynasty in Castile.

 

Conflicts in Aragón

Trastámara dynasty took power when Martin I died with no heirs and Fernando of Antequera was named King.

Peasant revolts

The nobility imposed extra taxes and obligations on the remaining peasants. Remensa peasants (who were tied to the land) rebelled against the nobility.

Urban conflicts in Barcelona

There were violent conflicts between two rival parties. The party of the nobles and rich merchants defended traditional privileges. They were opposed by an Alliance of smaller merchants, artisans and poor people.


7. The artistic legacy

The Romanesque style

The style reached the Iberian Peninsula through the Pyrenees and extended west along the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela.

-        The earliest Romanesque buildings were small rural churches like the Church of San Clemente de Tahull, Lleida.

-        Today, many Romanesque structures still survive along the Way of Saint James, including churches, hospitals and bridges built for the benefit of pilgrims: San Martín de Frómista, Palencia; Monastery of San Juan de la Peña, Huesca; cathedrals of Zamora and Santiago de Compostela.

The Gothic style

As cities expanded in the 13th century, the Gothic style of architecture spread through the Hispanic kingdoms.

-        Castile: the cathedrals of León, Toledo and Burgos.

-        Crown of Aragón: The church of Santa María del Mar and the commercial exchanges (lonjas) of Palma and Valencia.

 

 

Unit 7. Territorial organisation


1. How do we study territory?

Today, the whole world is divided into countries, with the exception of Antarctica.

Frontiers are the political boundaries of territories and are defined in different ways:

-        Natural frontiers: these frontiers are defined by natural relief features: a mountain range or a river.

-        Political frontiers: artificial frontiers defined by geographical coordinates.

The subdivisions can be regions, autonomous communities, provinces, districts, counties…

What factors affect territorial organisation?

Territories are complex areas. There are integrating factors, favouring the organisation of a  territory, and fragmenting factors, making movement and communication difficult within a territory.

-        Integrating factors:

o   Physical relief features: natural communication channels, river valleys and navigable rivers help to connect different parts of a territory.

o   Man-made infrastructures such as roads and railways facilitate communication.

-        Fragmenting factors:

o   Physical relief features such as high mountain ranges, wide rivers, lakes, can isolate parts of a territory, leading to fragmented territories.

o   Some types of climate can hinder territorial organisation. In cold climates, roads and railways may be closed for long periods due to snow and adverse weather.


 2.     What a state is?

Watch this video at this page beginning:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w_zIq1Ad0mg


Elements that make up a state

-        Citizens: People who live in a territory and are governed by laws which recognise their rights and duties.

-        Territory or country: Geographical space which include the land, the sea and air space.

-        Laws: A set of rules to regulate the people who live in the territory. This set of rules is the Constitution in democratic countries.

-        The branches of government:

o   The legislative Branch, which makes the laws.

o   The judicial Branch, which ensures that the laws are obeyed.

o   The executive Branch which applies the laws.

 

The functions of a state

-        International relations: To defend the interests of citizens against harm from other countries. Alliances with other states help to protect common interests. Membership of international organisations, such as the United Nations, UN, strengthens cooperation with other states.

-        National security: It defends the national territory and its citizens from external aggression.

-        Economic well-being: Governments make laws to ensure an efficient economy and adequate economic growth. Infrastructures are created to achieve these aims.

-        Social services: Such as food and water, housing, health care and education. A welfare state guarantees the economic and social well-being of its citizens.

 

State institutions

-        The Head of State: Represents the country abroad.

-        The Government holds the executive power, and prepares the national Budget which estimates the revenue needed to pay the expenses of the state.

-        The Parliament holds the legislative power. In Spain, Cortes Generales makes and passes the laws, controls the government and approves the national Budget.

-        The Courts of Justice hold the judicial power. Different types of courts of law ensure that all the laws are obeyed.

-        Regional and local administration organise and govern the territorial subdivisions contained within a state (regions, provinces, districts, municipalities, counties…)

 

3.     Types of states and international relations

Classification by how power is exercised:

-        Democracy:

o   Citizens elect their government and political representatives, who are from different political parties.

o   There are laws to guarantee citizens’ rights and liberties. Citizens are equal before the law.

o   There is separation of Powers into the three branches of government.

-        Dictatorship: All the power is concentrated in one leader.

o   Political parties are prohibited or the only legal parties are supporters of the government.

o   Laws do not respect citizens’ rights.

o   The government uses represión to ban or destroy political opposition.

o   There is no universal suffrage and citizens cannot elect their representatives.

 

Classification according to the Head of State

-        Monarchy: the Head of State is the king or queen. There are constitutional monarchies, like Spain, and absolute monarchies, like Saudi Arabia.

-        Republic: the Head of State is the president. There are democratic republics, like France, and single-party republics, like China, which is a type of dictatorship.

 

International relations between states

-        Political: Such as the cooperation between states to defend human rights.

-        Economic: Such as trade agreements to facilitate international trade.

-        Military: Such as alliances between countries to defend their territory from possible enemy attacks.

-        Cultural: Such as agreements to promote student exchanges with educational institutions in other countries.

Generally, countries sign international treaties when they agree to cooperate. Or they join international organisations such as the United Nations.

Occasionally, international relations cause conflicts. The reasons for conflicts can be economic, territorial, ideological, religious or ethnic. Conflicts can involve economic sanctions or violence and they can sometimes degenerate into war.


4.     The European Union

Origins

In 1951 six European countries (Belgium, France, Italy, West Germany, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) created the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC, CECA). In 1957 they signed the Treaties of Rome, which established the European Economic Community (EEC, CEE), and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM).

New measures:

-        Common economic policies for member countries

-        Free movements of goods, services, workers and capital between member countries

-        New laws in common to help to strengthen political cooperation

From the EEC to the EU

In 1993 the Maastricht Treaty became the EEC into the European Union (EU):

-        A single common market. In 2002 the oficial European currency, the €, came into circulation in the eurozone.

-        All citizens of the EU were granted European citizenship.

-        Cultural, educational and environmental policies were adopted.

The European Union today

Since its foundation in 1957, the EU has grown from six member countries to twenty-eight. Spain joined in 1986.

In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon came into force to reform the institutions of the EU:

-        It validated the Charter of Fundamental Rights for all European citizens.

-        A new more democratic voting system.

-        A European president is now chosen to represent the EU for a two and a half year term.

-        It strengthened EU foreign policies.


5.     The institutions of the European Union

-        European Parliament

o   Represents all the citizens of the EU.

o   Approves EU laws and the EU Budget, together with the Council of the European Union.

o   Controls the European Commision.

o   They are grouped by political parties, not by states.

-        European Commision

o   Holds the executive power and promotes the interests of the EU.

o   Proposes new laws to the Parliament and Council of the EU.

o   Manages EU policies and enforces EU laws.

o   One commisioner from each EU country.

-        Council of the European Union

o   Represents the government of the EU member states.

o   Approves EU laws and the EU Budget.

o   Creates the EU foreign policy.

o   Ministers from each EU state.

-        European Council

o   Defines general political guidelines and priorities of the EU.

o   The Heads of State or the governments of the EU countries, who meet four times a year.

 

Other institutions

-        The Court of Justice of the EU holds the judicial power and ensures that European laws are enforced.

-        The European Court of Auditors checks that EU funds are correctly spent.

-        The European Central Bank manages Europe’s single currency, the euro, along with the EU economic and monetary policy.


Other EU institutions are:

-        The European Economic and Social committee.

-        The Committee of the Regions.

-        The European Ombudsman.



 

Unit 8.      World population

 

1.     Demographic indicators: the birth rate and the fertility rate

Demography is the science that studies the population of a territory. We use a series of demographic indicators to study population.

The birth rate is the number of births in a population in a year.

The Crude birth rate indicates the number of births per 1000 inhabitants.

CBR = number of births / number of inhabitants x 1000

The total fertility rate (TFR) is the estimated average number of children a woman will have in her lifetime. We need to have at least 2 children per woman to ensure generational replacement.

 

Factors affecting the birth rate and the fertility rate

-        Socio-economic factors: The birth rate is high in poor regions to help with the work from an early age. The birth rate is low in developed áreas, where children do not start working until they are 16.

-        Cultural factors: There are more children born in societies where religión has a strong influence.

-        Social factors: The birth rate is lower in countries where women have access to education and work outside the home.

 2.     The death rate and life expectancy

-        The death rate is the number of deaths in a population in a year, per 1000 people.

-        The crude death rate (CDR) =

number of deaths / number of inhabitants x 1000

-        Life expectancy is the number of years a person is expected to live.

-        Infant mortality rate (IMR) refers to the number of deaths of infants under one year old, in a year.

 

Factors that affect the death rate

-        Nutrition: In less developed countries, as a result of extreme poverty, the main causes of death are hunger and malnutrition.

-        Access to higiene and health services: Access to drinking water and efficient sewage systems help to prevent diseases like typhus, and thus improve life expectancy. In addition, health care and medical advances (vaccines, modern surgery) reduce the death rate. These services are more available in developed countries.

Natural increase

Natural population growth is the difference between the number of births and the number of deaths in one place, in one year. If more people are born than die, the population increases, and if more people die than are born, the population decreases.

The rate of natural increase (RNI) = number of births – number of deaths / number of inhabitants x 100

3.     How do we study a population pyramid?

A population pyramid is a bar graph which shows a population structure by age and gender in a place at a specific time.

How to make and study?

https://cdn.educ.ar/dinamico/UnidadHtml__get__7c02fdf5-b548-45d3-9b7e-4aad848491ae/91686/data/4a0dba4d-7a08-11e1-82fa-ed15e3c494af/index1.htm

 

The world:

https://www.populationpyramid.net/


 4.     Migration

To calculate the real increase in a population, we also need information about migration:

Immigrants are people who come to live in a place from another country.

Emigrants are people who leave a country to go and live in another place.

The net immigration rate is the difference between the number of immigrants and the number of emigrants.

NMR = immigrants – emigrants

Why do people migrate? Reasons:

-        Social: finding a better quality of  life

-        Economic: finding Jobs or better working conditions

-        Environmental: Natural disasters, such as droughts or floods

-        Political or religious: From war or political or religious persecution

Types of migration

-        Permanent migration: they do not return

-        Temporary migration: eventually return to their country of origin

-        Seasonal migration: temporarily for work, as seasonal crop harvesters

-        International migration: to another country

-        Internal migration: in the same country

-        Voluntary migration

-        Forced migration

Consequences of international migrations

-        Consequences for the countries of origin: There can be negative effects on the population structure: most migrants are Young adults, therefore, their countries of origin lose population, and the population becomes older.

There can also be positive effects: there is less pressure on resources, and less unemployment in the country of origin. In addition, emigrants send money home to their families.

-        Consequences for the countries of arrival: There can be positive effects on the population structure: Young and adult immigrants increase the birth rate and contribute to a younger population and a greater workforce.

There can also be negative effects: the increasing costs of health care and education, and problems related to social integration, including cultural differences and xenophobia.

5.     Changes in world population: developed countries

World population growth results from changes in the birth rate and the death rate. These indicators vary greatly from one region to another, so demographers define two different models of population growth: one for developed countries and one for emerging and less developed countries.

Demographic growth in developed countries

-        The pre-industrial stage: the birth rate and the death rate were high. There was a very low rate of natural increase, and the total population remained low. Before the 18th century.

-        The population explosión: The birth rate remained high. As a result, there was a high natural increase and the total population increased at a rapid place. In the 19th century.

-        The modern demographic regime: the birth rate declined due to women joining the workforce. The death rate low because advances in medicine. There was a low rate of natural increase. Higher life expectancy, so an ageing population.

Countries according to their development

-        Developed countries: High per capita income which favours economic growth. Advanced industries and modern infrastructures. Germany.

-        Emerging countries: They are acquiring a level of production  and wealth which will enable them to become developed countries. Infrastructures are still deficient ald educational levels are low. The birth rate is moderately high.

-        Less developed countries: low per capita income. Life expectancy and educational levels are low. There is a large Young population and a very high birth rate.

Demographic characteristics of developed countries

-        An ageing population: As a result of low birth and death rates, the rate of natural increase is very low, and even negative in some countries. Life expectancy is high, about 80 years. This ageing population provokes an increase in costs of health care and pensions, and a decrease in the active population.

-        Positive net migration: Immigrants arrive from less developed countries, reducing population ageing and increasing the active population. Some developed countries have negative net migration in times of economic crisis, which results in further population ageing.

-        Pro-natalist policies: Some countries, such as France or Sweden have adopted pro-natalist policies which include maternity and paternity leave, tax discounts, in order to increase the birth rate.

6.     World population: emerging and less developed countries

Population growth in emerging and less developed countries

In emerging and less developed countries the pre-industrial stage lasted till the middle of the 20th century. There was a high birth rate and a high death rate due to wars and famine.

The population explosión began towards the end of the 20th centtury. The birth rate remained high, but the death rate declined, thanks to medical care provided by international aid and to improvements in food and higiene.

Demographic characteristics of emerging and less developed countries

-        A large Young population, due to high birth rates and declining death rates.

-        Negative net migration: rapid population growth and limited resources cause Young people to migrate to other countries for better opportunities.

-        Birth control policies: some countries introduce birth control measures to slow down population growth.

-        Strong contrast between rural and urban áreas: rural inland áreas have high birth and death rates, whereas urban áreas have lower birth rates and death rates.

World population growth

Population growh rate (PGR) is the increase in a country’s population over a period of time. It is expressed as a percentage of the population. It is calculated by adding the rate of natural increase to the net migration rate.

Depending on the country, the figures for the PGR can be zero (no growth), positive or negative. Population grows more rapidly in emerging and less developed countries and more slowly in developed countries.

7. World population distribution

How is population distribution measured?

Some areas are densely populated, whereas others are sparsely populated.

There are two ways to measure how population is distributed:

-        Count the number of inhabitants in each area of the world and compare the data. This information is collected in many countries every ten years in the census.

-        Calculate the population density in each area of the world and compare the data. They allow us to know if an area is densely or sparsely populated.

Factors affecting population distribution

-        Physical: Areas with natural resources and favourable conditions for human life, such as climate, physical relief, fertile soil and access to drinking water. On the other hand, areas with extreme weather conditions, dense vegetation, poor soil or mountain relief have discouraged settlements.

-        Historical: Areas that have been populated over millennia, regions with high birth rates and areas of constant immigration have maintained higher populations.

-        Economic and social: A healthy economy, good working conditions and services, individual and social freedom, quality of life and cultural diversity have attracted a greater number of people.



Unit 9 Cities

Settlement and urban growth

How were sites for early settlements chosen?

1...How were sites for early settlements chosen?

The location and growth of an individual settlement depend upon its site and situation

2.               Settlement of situation is in relation to…

It is in relation to natural resources: Physical features, and other settlements (human features)

3.               Location factors

·        Water

·        Away from flooded

·        Able to defend in case of attack

·        Near to materials for building homes

·        Able to feed themselves

·        Access to other places

·        Shelter from bad weather

·        Supply of fuel for cooking and heating

 

What are the different functions of settlements?

4.               Functions of settlements: types

·        Administrative: capital city, county town

·        Residential: People living (not working)

·        Route centre: Road, rail

·        Market town

·        Mining: Coal, iron

·        Educational: Cambridge, Oxford

·        Religious

·        Defensive

·        Tourist resort: Paris

·        Port

·        Commercial

·        Industrial

 

What is a settlement hierarchy?

5.               A settlement hierarchy is…

It is when settlements are put into order based upon their size or the services which they provide for people

6.               A settlement hierarchy can be produced using three different methods:

·        Population size: the larger the settlement the fewer there will be of them

·        Distance apart: the larger the settlement the further it will be from other large settlements

·        Range and number of services: the larger the settlement the more services it will provide

7.               Is there a hierarchy of shopping centres of different sizes?

·        Population size: the larger the settlement the greater the number of high order shops

·        Distance apart: the larger the shopping centre the further it will be to other large centres

·        Range of services: the larger the shopping centre the more services it will provide

 

What is a typical urban land use model?

8.               Urban land use models are…

These are theories by several geographers to show how the characteristic patterns and shapes develop

9.               The Burgess model

He claimed that the focal point of a town was the CBD (Central Business District)

10.            The Burgess model (represented)

11.            Functional zones in a city

As towns grew, each of the zones developed its own special type of land use or function

12.            The major types of land use in a town are

They are shops and offices, industry, and housing. Other significant types of land use include open space, transport and services (schools, hospitals and shops

13.            Compare the Burgess model and the Hoyt model (Clica aquí)

As each city develops its own pattern of land use, that pattern is likely to be more complex than the one shown in the Burgess model. The Hoyt model is a more realistic map showing land use and functional zones in a city

 

What are the CBD and inner city zones like?

14.            The location of each functional zone and the pattern of land use in a city are related to…

They are related to accessibility, land values, competition for land, age of buildings, wealth of the residents and changes in demand

15.            The CBD is…

It is the commercial and business centre of a town or city: Central Business District

16.            The CBD is so for two reasons

·        Accessibility

·        Land values

17.            The CBD have as main functions…

Shopping and offices, banks, building societies and other commercial companies

 

What are the suburbs and the rural-urban fringe zones like?

18.            The suburbs

This outward growth, known as urban sprawl, led to the construction of numerous private housing estates in car-based suburbs. These corresponded with Burgess’s zone of medium-cost housing 

19.            The rural-urban fringe

It is located at the edge of a town or city. It is a transition zone where there is competition for land between the built-up area and the countryside

 

What are the main urban problems in London?

20.            Counter-urbanization is…

It is the movement out of the city. Now, in London, exceeds the number of new arrivals

21.            Deprivation

It is a measure of how either individuals or groups of people are at a disadvantage compared with those living elsewhere

22.            Deprivation can be measured…

By using four indictors: economic, social, housing and environmental

23.            Factors of deprivation

·        Live in decent housing

·        Earn an adequate wage

·        Have access to various amenities

24.             Cycle of poverty

Poverty is transmitted from one generation to the next, making escape from deprivation very difficult

25.            Make a summary of a city / town parts

CBD – Inner city – Suburbs – Rural-urban fringe

 

Urban planning and change

Who makes the decisions in urban planning?

No change is meant to take place unless planning permission has been given

 

What changes have taken place in the CBD?

2.               Why have CBDs changed?

·        The increase in traffic congestion led to several shops moving to out-of-town locations

·        Hypermarkets and out-of-town shopping centre led to a decline in the number of shoppers visiting the city centre

·        The decline in the number of shoppers has continued with the increase of internet shopping

·        People visiting the city centre wanted a safer environment

·        Increasing demand for leisure amenities (entertainment)

·        Many taller buildings were built in order to offset the costly rates and rent resulting from the high land values

 

What changes have taken place in London’s Docklands?

3.               The Port of London

During the nineteenth century the port of London was the busiest in the world. Surrounding the dock were:

·        Numerous industries using imported goods

·        High-density, poor quality housing typical of old inner city areas

4.               The London Docklands Development Corporation

The London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC, 1981) was set up to try to improve the social, economic and environmental conditions of the area

5.               The London Docklands Development Corporation: Tasks

·        To improve social conditions (new housing, amenities)

·        To improve economic conditions (new jobs, transport system)

·        To improve environmental conditions (cleaning up the docks, planting trees, open spaces)

 

How has Trafford Park in Manchester been regenerated?

6.               History of Trafford Park

The park, surrounded by inner city terraced housing, became the world’s first planned industrial estate

7.               Tasks in Manchester’s development

·        Identifying four major development areas

·        Improving transport

·        Improving the environment

·        Improving services and recreation facilities

 

What changes have taken place at the rural-urban fringe?

8.               Advantages of the rural-urban fringe

A pleasant environment with more open space

Less traffic congestion and pollution (air and noise)

Cheaper land

Easier access and a better road infrastructure

9.               Greenfield sites

They are at the rural-urban fringe, and they have not been built 

10.            Greenfield sites are under constant threat for:

·        Housing development

·        Science and business parks

·        Hypermarkets, superstores

·        Firms

·        Hotels and conference centres

·        Road development

·        Recreational areas such as country parks and new sports stadiums

 

What are suburbanized villages?

11.            Counter-urbanization is…

Places that have attracted wealthy urban workers and retired people: this process is called counter-urbanization

12.            The result of the counter-urbanization village is known as…, because…

It is known as suburbanized village because they increasingly begin to look like an extension to the suburbs of adjacent towns

13.            Commuter villages

Many of their inhabitants travel to work in nearby towns

 

Should planners favour Greenfield or Brownfield development?

14.            Assuming Britain will need 4 million new homes by 2016: Where?

·        60 per cent on Brownfield sites (disused land within existing urban areas)

·        40 per cent on Greenfield sites (countryside and green belts)

15.            Greenbelt

It is land surrounding a large urban area that is protected from urban development

16.            The National Database shows a mismatch 

·        The South-East of England: most houses are needed but where Brownfield sites are limited

·        The Midlands and North, where most Brownfield sites are available but where demand for new homes is less

 

Why is traffic a problem in urban areas?

17.            A commuter is…

It is a person who lives:

·        Either in the suburbs of a large city

·        Or in a village or small town close to a larger town or city

18.            What are the damaging effects of traffic?

Economic: Cost of petrol or diesel

Environmental: Air pollution, noise pollution, visual pollution

Social: Respiratory illnesses caused by car fumes

 

Can solutions to urban traffic problems be sustainable?

19.            How can we make urban traffic sustainable?

·        Cycle tracks

·        Park and ride schemes

·        Traffic in residential areas: It has to be controlled, avoiding its use by drivers from other sites to make an easier pass

·        Super trams: its operability, better than buses on the road, and underground under the road, getting all places, in the centre and suburbs at the same level

·        Congestion charges: you must pay if you want enter the centre

 

 

Unit 10 World population and cities

Urbanization in developing countries

What are the problems of urbanization?

It is the increase in the proportion of the world’s population that live in cities

2.               Evolution of the cities along the time

The increase in million cities

·        1850. The only two million cities in the world were London and Paris

·        2000. There were 324

The increase in the number of million cities located in developing countries, especially those located within the tropics

3.               Bustees…

Bustee houses have mud floor, wattle or wooden walls and tiled or corrugated iron roofs, materials that are not the best for giving protection against the heavy monsoon rains (India)

4.               Main problems of urbanization in developing countries are…

Housing, services, water supply, sanitation and health, and employment, crime, segregation…

 

What is a typical land use model?

5.               The land use model in developing countries differs from the developed one in several ways…

·        The gap between the relatively few rich and the numerous poor is much greater

·        Most of the better-off areas are located near to the city centre with increasingly poorer areas found towards the city boundary

·        A large number of people, many of whom are migrants from surrounding rural areas, are forced to live as squatters in shanty settlements or, using the UN term, ‘informal settlements’

6.               Functional zones

·        CBD: Congestion and competition for space is even greater

·        Industry: Large factories tend to develop along main roads leading out of the city

·        Inner zone (high-class): Many developing countries were former European colonies

·        Middle zone (medium-class residential): This zone provides the ‘in-between’ housing, except that here it is of much poorer quality

·        Outer zone (low-class residential): This is the zone where most of the recent arrivals from rural areas are forced to live (favelas in Brazil and bustees in India, chabolas in Spain)

 

What is life like in shanty settlements?

7.               Shanty settlements…

They grow up well away from the CBD on land that previously had been considered unsuitable for building

8.               Types of shanty settlements

·        Steep hillsides (Rio de Janeiro)

·        Swampy flood plains of rivers (Nairobi in Kenya)

9.               Problems in Nairobi

·        Housing: Poor materials, no services, just one room (for one family)

·        Education and health: Malaria, cholera, dysentery, typhoid for contaminated water

·        Shops: Fruit and vegetables from surrounding areas

·        Employment: People have to find their own way to earn money (cheaply made goods, collect waste material and recycle it in small workshops)

·        Transport: Bicycles or overcrowded buses

·        Community spirit: Survival can also depend upon living and working together

 

Why are self-help schemes sustainable?

10.            The case of Sao Paulo, Brazil

Initially, in the upgrading of living conditions, and later, the introduction of shops and small-scale industries

11.            Practical Action in Nairobi, Kenya

It is a British charitable organization that works with people in developing countries. The self-sufficient is looked for



Unit 11. Europe: population and cities


THE TERRITORY OF EUROPE

It is situated in the Nother Hemisphere, Europe forms part of Eurasia and it is separated by the Caucasus and Ural Mountains, the Ural River and the Caspian Sea. It is surrounded by the Artic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Meditarranean and Black Seas

Europe is a small continent with a surface área of 10.5 million km square and it is divided into 49 independent countries

The countries differ greatly in size. Some are very large like Russian Federetion (17million km square) and others like Vatican City (less than 1 km square)

 

DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS IN EUROPE

In southern Europe the lowest and in nothern Europe the highest

Because they joined workforce

80 for women 73 for men

10 to 5 and 9 to 7

 

POPULATION STRUCTURE OF EUROPE

Europe has an ageing population

-Germany and Italy have a high ageing population. CDR and CBR are low. High life expentancy and positive net migration

-Bulgaria and Ukraine have an ageing population. CDR is low because population over 65 emigrated many years ago. CBR lower than CDR. Negative net migration

-Ireland and Iceland have a moderately ageing population. The CBR is relatively high and CDR are low. Positive net migration

-Albania and Macedonia have a low population of older inhabitants. High CBR and low CDR. Negative net migration

-Fertility rates decrease a generation replacement doesn’t take place

-Healt care costs and pension increase.

-Pro-natalist policies: Tax reductions for large families, free quality education, schools, ship for university education…

-Adjustments in retirement pension schemes

-Controlled imigration policies

 

MIGRATION IN EUROPE

The period of high emigration ocurred in 1950. And the countries are Latin Ameica, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian.

In 1995

From 1950 to 1975, from 1975 to 1995 and finish in 2007

The economy: because Europe have a great economy, more oportunities to work (Rumania, Bulgaria, Poland). But this finished in 2007 and that people went to other countries in the EU

The retirement: Other inmigrants go to the nothern European countries retire to the mediterranean countries

 

 

 

POPULATION CHANGES AND GROWTH IN EUROPE

The population has nearly quadrupled from 200 million to 700 million inhabitants. But population growth has been lower than in the world as a whole

From 1800 to 1918: agricultural and industry increase in resources so the population growth

From 1918 and 1945 thread factors caused a significant decline in population (Second World War, Spanish Flu…)

From 1945 to 1990: population began increasing again

From the 1990 to nowadays: population growth is stagmant

Nothern and western Europe: have experienced similar rates of population growth

Eastern Europe: has high population growth

Southern Europe: experienced population growth

 

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN EUROPE

In most economically developed areas such as France, Belgium, UK…

The lowest population densities are the Eastern and nothern Europe such as Iceland, Norway, Finland, Russia…

Physical relief, and  social and economic


URBAN POPULATION IN EUROPE

-Different rates of economic development

-The definition of a city

Pollution, traffic congestion and high housing prices

80%

25. What is the EU urban network?

The Urban network of the European Union can be analysed on the basis of the population size of the main cities and metropolitan áreas

 



Unit 12. Spain: territory, population and cities



1.The territorial organisation of Spain

1.  How is divided the territory of Spain?

The territory of Spain is divided into autonomous communities and autonomous cities, provinces, municipalities.

 

2.  How many autonomous communities and autonomous cities are there in Spain?

There are 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities.

 

3.  How are divided the Spanish autonomous communities?

They are divided into 50 provinces which are governed by a provincial deputation, who are appointed by municipalities.

 

4.  What is a municipality?

A municipality is the basic unit of territorial organization.

 

5.  What is a municipal council?

 It governs each municipality. It consists of a mayor and an assembly of councilors.

 

2. Spanish institutions

6.  What is the Spanish Constitution?

 Is the most important law in Spain which was approved in a referendum on 6TH of December 1978

 

7.  Democracy in Spain:

·        Social state: Play the role in society through policies that affect the economy, education, and health of the population

·        Democratic state: all citizens have the right to participate in political life

·        The rule of law: all people are equal before the law

 

8.  National Institutions

·        The Crown: It is the head of stare(monarchs)that represents Spain

·        Parliament: general election every four years. Two houses: congress of the deputies and Senate

·        Government holds the executive power

·        The law courts: Holds judicial authority and administer justice. The highest court; Supreme court

·        Constitutional court: verifies new laws

 

 

 

 

 

 

9.  The institutions of the autonomous communities:

·        Regional government exercises executive power the autonomous governments have different names :Junta Generalitat or Xunta

·        Autonomous parliament holds legislative power and draws up laws the territory of the Autonomous community, its member must been elected

·        High court: High court of justice is the highest judicial authority  in an autonomous community

 

 

3. Natural population growth in Spain

10.   How much people does Spain have?

It is over 47 million people, which is over 9% of the European Union. The birth rate and fertility rate the crude birth rate is over 9 per 1000  and the fertility rate is about 39 per 1000(1.3 child). There was an increase of births because the economic growth attracted young immigrants who started families; the birth rate is expected to falling because of the economic crisis.

 

11.   Death rate and life expectancy in Spain

The crude death rate is low in Spain 8.5 per thousand. And life expectancy is about 86 for females and 80 for males

 

12.   Rate of natural increase Occurs because the birth rate is so low. There are regional differences:

·        Madrid the region of Murcia the Balearic islands Andalusia and Catalonia have positive natural increase

·        The principality of Asturias, castile and León, Extremadura, the Basque country and Cantabria have low or negative rate of natural increase

4. Population structure of Spain

13.   What percentage represents  women in Spain? Why?

Women represent the 51% in Spain because women have a higher life expectancy

 

14.   By age, how is the population classified in Spain?

In Spain the population is divided into three groups

 

15.   Which are them?

·        Young population(0-14 years)

·        Working-age population(15-64years)

·        Older population(65 years and over)

 

16.   In terms of work, how is divided the population?

In terms of work, population can be divided into two groups.


17.   Which are them?

·        Active population(works)

·        Inactive population( doesn’t work)

 

18.   How many economics sectors are there? Which are them? There are 3 sectors

·        Primary sector: Decreased greatly in the 20TH century

·        Secondary sector: increased from 6% in 1900 to 19.4% in 2014

·        Tertiary sector: has expanded greatly since the 1970s

5. Migration flows in Spain

19.   Migration situation in Spain

Migration flows have changed greatly in Spain over the last century:

·        Historically: Spain was a country of emigration

·        In the 20TH century Spain became rich and then it was a immigration country

·        In the economic crisis that began in2007 immigration slowed down dramatically, immigrants returned to their countries.

 

20.   Autonomous communities of immigrants:

·        Balearic island  the region of Murcia and the community of Valencia are the highest proportion

·        Extremadura has the lowest proportion

 

21.   Reasons why the people elects coastal cities

·        More job and opportunities

·        Offers a pleasant climate and good health and transport services

 

6. Population distribution of Spain

 

22.   Which is the population density in Spain?

 In Spain, average population density is about 92 inhabitants/km2

 

23.   What are the most important differences between regions?

·        Coast and inland: coast are usually densely populated, except Madrid

·        Urban and rural: About 80% the Spanish population lives in cities , urban areas are much more densely populated than rural areas

 

24.   Where is more concentrated the population?

About 60%of the total population is concentrated in just four autonomous communities like Andalusia Catalonia, Madrid and the community of Valencia

 

 

 

25.   What are the main factors causing uneven population distribution?

·        Society and the economy: regions with dynamic economies attract immigrants

·        Demographic structure: the Mediterranean coasts the southern part of the peninsula and the Canary islands have had younger population and a higher rate of natural increase.

·        Physical geography: mountains areas and coldest inland areas aren’t densely populated

 

7. Spanish cities

26.   Industrialization in Spain

·        Most of the population lived in urban centers with less than 10,000 inhabitants

·        Economic growth was a major cause of urbanization. Most important industries were located near cities. One third of the rural population end to live in cities, looking for better work opportunities. That massive internal migration is known as rural exodus

·        Today, three quarters of the Spanish population live in urban areas. Madrid with over 3 million inhabitants and Barcelona with 1.6 million inhabitants

·        Many people have move out of large cities as a result of high housing prices and urban problems, such as pollution, traffic and noise. These extended spaces are known as diffuse cities.

27.   The urban hierarchy in Spain:

·        National metropolises: Madrid and Barcelona

·        Regional metropolises: Bilbao, Sevilla, Valencia and Málaga

·        Regional cities: Oviedo, Valladolid, alicante and Murcia

·        Medium-sized cities: Gijon, Granada and Donostia-San Sebastián

·        Small towns: Valdepeñas…