3º ESO: Lista de reproducción de vídeos

En este curso veremos los siguientes temas:

El medio natural y la actividad humana

Población

La Economía y la globalización

La producción de alimentos

Industria

El comercio y el transporte

Sector Servicios

Ciudades

Un mundo globalizado (ODS)

Alianzas entre estados

Unit 1. Geography. Natural environment and human activity.

Unit 2. The Natural Environment

Unit 3. Population

Unit 4. Towns and cities

Estos cuatro temas (1-4) se encuentran desarrollados en esta misma página, después de este índice.

SEGUNDA EVALUACIÓN

Unit 5. 1. Economic activities

Unit 6. 2. Primary sector

Unit 7. 3. Secondary sector

Unit 8. 4. Tertiary sector

Unit 5. 1. Economic activities

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Economy

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 6. 2. Primary sector

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Primary sector

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 7. 3. Secondary sector

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Secondary sector

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 8. 4. Tertiary sector

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Tertiary sector

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

TERCERA EVALUACIÓN

Unit 9. Un mundo globalizado

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Temas MEC - BRITISH. Unit 17: Managing resources. Unit 18: Development

En el cuaderno, hay que recoger el conjunto de contenidos de esta unidad.

Unit 10. Alianzas entre estados

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Temas MEC - BRITISH, Unit 19: Interdependence and globalization

En el cuaderno, hay que recoger el conjunto de contenidos de esta unidad.

Contenidos referentes a Historia Moderna (no son válidos para el curso actual)

Unit 9. 5. Modern Times

Unit 10. 6. Modern States

Unit 11. 7. Habsburgs

Unit 12. 8. Baroque

Unit 9. 5. Modern Times

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Modern Times

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 10. 6. Modern States

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Modern States

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 11. 7. Habsburgs

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Habsburgs

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 12. 8. Baroque

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Baroque

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 1. Geography

1. Fathers of Geography. Three branches of Geography, Two perspectives of Geography. Portulan charts. Atlases

Geography: the science of territories

The fathers of Geography were Alexander von Humboldt and Carl Ritter

Three branches of Geography:

-Physical geography is the study of the natural environment: relief, climates, water, plants and soil structure and fauna.

-Human geography is the study of the population and its characteristics, such as types of settlements, the use of resources and transport, as well as social, cultural and political activity.

-Regional geography studies the natural or artificial units modified by humans and relates them to all their physical and human elements.

In medieval times, Portulan Charts were developed, displaying the coasts in great detail because they were used to navigate the sea.

This is how collections of maps, known as atlases, originated. They are named after the mythological giant who held up the world. The first atlas was created by Abraham Ortelius, Philip II’s royal cartographer. Another important cartographer was Gerardus Mercator, creator of the projection that is named after him.

2. Main types of map projections. Cylindrical projection. Conical projection. Flat projection. Mercator projection for the whole world, but exagerated poles. Gall-Peters projection stretches countries. Explain 1:10000. Maps can be... 1:10000 map is smaller or greater than 1:50000 Why? Types of scales.

A scale is expressed as a fraction in which the numerator is the measure used in the map and the denominator is the number of times it needs to be multiplied by. When the denominator is large, we can see large areas, but not a lot of detail. When the denominator is small, the space represented is smaller but has more detalis in it.

3. Types of maps: General or thematic

 Types of general maps: characteristics which are very varied: relief, lakes and rivers, cities, contries. Physical or political maps, depending on the main features shown.

Topographic maps are the basic represantions of a space, and they are mostly used to locate a range of variables (latitude, longitude, altitude above sea level...). Altitude is expressed by contours, which are closed curves and lines that connect points at the same altitude

Thematic maps show the spatial distribution of specific aspects of the land (flora, climate, transport...)

City plan are representations of very small spaces.

Large city plans show the location of the city

Plans of villages show many more details.

4. GIT. Geographic Information Technology

GIT is a group of techniques and methods used to find out about and represent territories.

Cartography is the discipline concerned with representing territories. Nowadays it refers to automated cartography or cartography produced by computer.

Photography shows the landscape from different angles and perspectives, and allows us to take panoramic shots or extremely detailed pictures. It's a very powerful tool for analysing landscapes.

 Remote sensing capture images and information from the Earth without making contact with the surface of the planet.

Aerial photography: from planes allow us to produce large images displaying both vast areas of land as well as the locations of particular features.

Satellite images, using special sensors to provide information about the natural and anthropic characteristics of a territory. These images show many observable phenomena in real time. They allow us to predict the weather or give us information about forest fires, active volcanoes, epidemics or the movement of troops.

5. Geographical landscapes-

-The natural environment: Relief, climate, hydrography, plants and animals are all elements that make up the natural environment and they can be changed to varying degrees by human intervention.

-Current human activity: To extract materials and wood, stone, minerals, water, or to occupy and transform it (crops, canals, land used for cities, communication routes or general services).

-Historical human activity. Previous generations and cultures have left a profound mark on the landscape by deforesting certain areas.

Unit 2 The Natural Environment

1. The natural environment of Europe and Spain

Europe is the second smallest continent in the world after Oceania. It is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains, the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian Sea. To the west is the Atlantic Ocean and to the south is the Mediterranean Sea.

The relief and waters of Europe

It's the continent with the lowest average altitude (290 m.), because the low altitudes of these mountains ranges and the huge size of its lowlands.

• Eastern Europe: Between the Carpathians and the Ural Mountains from west to east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus (with the highest peak in Europe, mount Elbrus at 5633 m) and the Black Sea to the south. It's a great plain, extending to the north of Germany and France and its rivers are long and voluminous: the Ural and the Volga rivers flow into the Caspian Sea; the Don, the Dnieper and the Dniester flow into the Black Sea; and the Vistula and the Oder flow into the Baltic Sea. There are also great lakes such as Ladoga, Onega, and thousands of glacial lakes in Finland.

• Central and Western Europe is a much more rugged region, with many mountain ranges and numerous, but shorter, rivers. In the north, we find the Scandinavian Alps with abundant glaciers, fjords and the Grampian Mountains (Great Britain). In the centre, there are the mountain ranges of the Alps (Mount Blanc at 4807 m), the Carpathians, the Vosges, the Ardennes, the Jura, the Black Forest, and the Central Massif in France. In the south, there are the Spanish mountain ranges (Pyrenees, Cantábrica, Ibérica, Central, Bética), the Apennines, the Dinaric Alps, the Balkan and the Rhodope. The most important rivers are the Danube, which flows into the Black Sea; the Oder, Elba, Rhine, Seine, Loire, Garonne and Thames which flows into the Atlantic (along with the Miño, Duero, Tajo, Guadiana and Guadalquivir). The Ebro, Rhone, Po, Tiber and Maritza all flow into the Mediterranean Sea. There are also large lakes such as the Balaton (Hungary), Vanern (Sweden), Leman (Switzerland and France).

The relief of Spain

The Spanish relief can be divided into five large groups: 

• The Meseta and its interior mountain ranges: This is a large raised area of almost horizontal relief. It covers nearly half of peninsular Spain and is divided into two parts: the North subplateau, crossed by the River Douro and its tributaries, and the South subplateau, crossed by the Tagus and the Guadiana. The Central System separates the two subplateaus and has mountains such as those of Gata, Gredos (Almanzor, 2591 m.) and Guadarrama. The Montes de Toledo, between the Tagus and the Guadiana, are not very high.

• The periphery mountain ranges: The Montes de León separate Galicia from La Meseta and the Cantabrian Mountains (with the Picos de Europa, Torre Cerredo, 2648 m) and isolate it from the Cantabrian Sea. The Iberian System (Moncayo, 2313 m) separates the Meseta from Aragón and Levante. The Sierra Morena (Bañuela, 1323 m), despite its low altitude, closes off the Meseta to the South and separates it from Andalucía.

• The depressions and external lowlands: These are flat areas at low altitude which rivers flow through. Notable examples include the Ebro Valley, the Guadalquivir Valley, and the Levantine Plain.

• The external mountain ranges: Notable examples include the Pyrenees (Aneto, 3404 m) which separate the Iberian Peninsula from the rest of Europe, the Catalan coastal ranges and the Andalusian System, with the Subbaetic and Penibaetic Systems (Mulhacén, 3479 m, the highest peak on the peninsula). The Galician massif is located in the North East.

• The insular areas: These consist of the Balearic archipelagos in the Mediterranean, and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic. The Balearics (Puig Major, 1445 m) are made up of the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, Formentera, Cabrera, Conejera and Dragonera. The Canaries consist of the islands of Tenerife, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro. El Teide (3715 m) is the highest point in Spain.

Climate and biogeography in Europe

Due to the fact that Europe is located in the mid-latitudes, temperate climates (Mediterranean, maritime, and continental) and alpine climates predominate, with the exception of the extreme north which has a polar climate.

The maritime influence or its abscence and the relief are other factors which determine its climate.

• Maritime: this type of climate is found on the western edge, with mild temperatures (0-15ºC) and little temperature variation (the difference between the average monthly temperatures of the coldest and the hottest months) thanks to the proximity of the sea which prevents temperatures from becoming extreme. The storms which penetrate from the Atlantic (the dominant direction of the wind in Europe is froma the east) create a region of abundant precipitations throughout the whole year (800-2500 mm). The southern region (the cantabrian coast, Galicia and the north of Portugal) has a range of milder temperatures, whereas the northern region (Scandinavia and Scotland) have a colder and more humid range.

• Mediterranean: With different variations, this type of climate is found throughout the continent, from the south of Portugal to the Black Sea. It has higher temperatures (7-20ºC) as well as lower and more irregular precipitation  (300-700 mm), with very dry summers.

• Continental: this type of climate has lower temperatures (0-10ºC) and huge temperature contrasts because of its distance from the sea. Precipitation is medium or low (200-700 mm), largely consisting of snow and with summer rains. It varies depending on the distance from the sea and on the latitude.

• Alpine: The altitude causes a decrease in temperatures (months with <0 ºC) and an increase in precipitation (800-2500 mm). This type of climate is found in all the mountain ranges.

• Polar: Located beyond the Arctic Circle, this climate type has little precipitation, mostly in the form of snow, and very low temperatures, generally below zero.

Climates and biogeography in Spain

Spain has an oceanic or Mediterranean climate on the peninsula, an alpine climate in the higher regions, and a subtropical or Canarian climate in the Canary Islands.

• The Cantabrian coast and Galicia. This area has an maritime climate consisting of cool winters and mild summers, with a temperature variation of less than 15 ºC. It is very humid (usually more than 1000 mm), with rain throughout the year, but mainly in winter.

• The Mediterranean coast and southeast Andalucía. This area has a coastal Mediterranean climate, with its average and extreme temperatures being the highest in Europe (Sevilla has an annual average temperature of 19 ºC and its maximum temperature is 47 ºC). Its thermal amplitude is usually less than 16 ºC. Precipitation is low (between 250 and 700 mm) and irregular. It usually occurs in spring and autumn, with very dry summers. There are extreme cases in Andalucía: 170 mm in Cabo de Gata (Almería), the driest in Europe, and 2000 mm in Sierra de Grazalema (Cádiz).

• The interior of the peninsula. Although this area has a Mediterranean climate, it is affected by its continental aspect (distance from the sea). It is characterised by large contrasts in temperature: very hot summers and very cold winters. Its thermal amplitude usually exceeds 18 ºC. Its precipitation is similar to that of the Mediterranean coastal climate (250-800 mm).

• Alpine climate. This has abundant precipitation (400-2000 mm) and low temperatures, buy it varies between the mountain ranges of the north (the CAntabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees) or the south (the Andalusian System). It also depends on the orientation (facing north or south) and the altitude.

• Canarian or subropical climate. Its location in the Atlantic and its nearness to the Tropic of Cancer and the Sahara affect its climate and variations. Generally, it is hot and dry, and has little thermal amplitude (17-20 ºC). There are significant differences between the semi-desert eastern islands (Fuerteventura and Lanzarote) and the more humid western ones (La Palma, El Hierro and La Gomera).

Unit 3    POPULATION

1. The historical development of the world's population

A population is a group of people who live in a territory or a place at a particular moment in time.

From the Neolithic Revolution onwards, when human became sedentary and started to develop agriculture, livestock farming, mining, trade and a social organisation, the population growth has been determined by agricultural areas (food production), the natural environment and its climate (warm or cold periods, droughts) and catastrophic events such as wars and epidemics.

The world's population grew slowly and unevenly until the 19th century. In the 1st century, the world had 256 million inhabitants, and 384 million in the year 1200: world population development

The Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century: in 1800 there were 890 million people on Earth and in 1900 this figure had reached 1,2 billion. The population doubled within 100 years.

Current demographic trends:

• Increase in the world population

• Ageing population

• Changes in the family structure

• Predominance of the urban population

• Migrations

Demographic models

• Old demographic regime: High birth and mortality rates. In preindustrial societies.

• Demographic transition regime: At first, it has high birth rates, but lower mortality rates due to the availability of better foods. At the end, birth rates decrease and the growth is smaller. In Europe after the Industrial Revolution.

• Modern demographic regime: Mortality and birth rates stagnate because they are very low. In Europe at the end of the 20th century.

• Regressive demographic stage: A natural negative growth due to the ageing population and the drastic reduction in birth rates. There are more deaths than births. In developed countries.

2. Distribution of the population

Regions truly barren: less than 1 person/km2

High density areas: favourable conditions: (agricultural, mineral and industrial, with examples: Nile, Appalachian Mts, Great Lakes, respectively) 

Conurbation: A central city surrounded by other dependent cities, over 10 million people: Tokyo, Ciudad de México.

 Megalopolis: A group of cities linked together by a transport network: BosWash: Boston, NY, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington. 

ChiPitts is...?

Low density areas: People living in deserts, rainforests, boreal forests, cold and hot desert areas, mountainous areas.

3. The natural movements of the population

Inhabitants = *Habitants (wrong)

Birth and Death rates always in per thousand (never per cent)

Natural movements of the population refer to the natural process of life: birth and mortality rates, as well as the difference between the two (natural growth).

Birth rate is the total number of births per 1000 inhabitants (‰) that occur during a year in a particular place.

 Birth rate - Mortality rate = Natural growth. 

General fertility rate is the number of children per woman aged 15-49.

Child mortality rate is the number of children in their first year of life, per 1000 inhabitants, that have died in a particular location. 

Natural population growth is the difference between births and deaths, and it is expressed as a percentage (%).

 Life expectancy describes how long a person may live in years. It is an indicator of a country's quality of life.

4. Migrations are the movements of people from their native countries to other places.

People who leave their countries are referred to as emigrants, and when they reach their new destinations they are called immigrants.

Migration types: 

• Duration: seasonal or permanent

• Causes of migration: economic, persecuted for political, ethnic or religious reasons.

• Destination: Regional, continental or intercontinental.

5.   Ageing and youth: economic consequences. 

Famine is not a problem of food production, but instead a problem of food distribution and food access.

Infectious illnesses: AIDS, Ebola, tuberculosis, Covid19, constantly threaten the population. The problem of infectious illnesses goes hand in hand with a  deficiency of health services in less developed countries.

6. A mosaic of ethnicities and cultures

For a long time, continents were associated with a particular race: Europe (white), Asia (yellow), Africa (black), America (bronce).

However this simplistic, discriminatory and outdated view makes no sense at all because the constant mix of races (miscegenation) is very important in many countries, and the marriage between different cultures and races will become even more common as time goes by. We must remember that there are identifying traits in certain countries and regions:

• Europe: mix of ethnicities and cultures.

•  America: Languages as Quechua and Aymara still survive. 

• North America: Aboriginal people Eskimos and Native Americans do not exist in huge populations, but they represent important cultural values. 

• Asia: The most well-known migrant population is the Chinese one which is present in the southeastern areas of the continent.

•  Africa: South of the Sahara, the black race predominates almost exclusively, except in South Africa, which has five million white people who are the descendants of British and Dutch settlers. Africa constitutes the biggest example of ethnic diversity, cultural heritage and language richness in the world. English and French are predominant in the former colonies, whilst Arabic is the common language found in the north of the continent.

Unit 4 Town and cities

1. Rural habitats across the world

• Traditional houses and the environment: Traditional rural houses are characterised by their use of natural materials found in the environment as well as by their functionality (home, workplace...)

• We can classify houses according to their shape, the materials used in their construction, and their geographical location:

  • Stone houses: Masía in Cataluña, Cortijo in Andalucía, Quintería in Castilla-La Mancha, Caserío in País Vasco.

  • Mud houses: Made of adobe (a mixture of mud and straw): Barraca in Valencia.

  • Wooden houses: These are found in forest areas.

  • Houses of fur and fabric: Arabic tent, Mongolian yurt, and the tepee, the traditional home of the Native Americans from North America.

  • Cave houses:In Eastern Andalucía, they are located in Guadix (Granada), but they are also found in Tajuña valley (Madrid) and Júcar valley.

  • Ice homes: Eskimos build these near the Arctic using cubes of ice: igloos.

• Towns and villages throughout the world:

  • Jungles and forests: in the Amazon forest, in which the populations are hunter-gatherers.

  • Grazing regions: The habitats and the communities are dispersed: Galicia, Asturias, the Alps, Cantabria...

  • Intensive agriculture areas: Dispersion is predominant (crops in Valencia and Murcia). Communities close together, the soil is not of a very good quality.

  • Extensive agriculture areas: La Mancha, Andalucía, Eastern Europe, Asia. In many cases these towns are built in a linear shape, because they have developed along a communication route.

  • Fishing areas: Vietnam and Thailand (Southeast Asia).

2. Urban habitats: cities.

Three main characteristics are needed for a human settlement to be considered a city:

• Demographic size: in Spain: 10.000 inhabitants. Australia or Canada: 1.000. China and USA: 2.500. Japan: more than 20.000

• The functions they perform: They usually carry out work in the tertiary sector, and sometimes in the secondary sector (mining and industrial cities). Activities related to the primary sector can only be carried out by up to 25% of the active population.

•  Density and permanence: cities have high population densities because the whole population is concentrated in a relatively small area.

Urban structure and urban morphology

Urban structure refers to the functional internal organization of cities as well as to their different uses.

Cities have areas that differ according to the functions performed in each of them (business centres, residential areas, industrial parks, shopping and entertainment areas…)

Urban morphology refers to the external appearance of a city and is evident in the layout of the city and its streets, as well as in the buildings and their shapes.

Consequently, there are orthogonal or checkerboard, circular, irregular and radial plans.

3. Historical transformations of cities

Traditional cities

Traditional cities are those that originated before the 19th century and the Industrial Revolution. They preserve most of their old layout and historical heritage..

-        Muslim cities: Medieval origin, although many of them existed even before that time. In North Africa (Cairo, Algiers, Tunis, Fez, Rabat, Marrakesh) and in the Middle East (Damascus, Baghdad, Mecca)

-        South and Central American colonial cities: After the arrival of the Spanish and the Portuguese in America (16th century). Some of them were built on the sites of pre-existing cities (Cuzco, Mexico City). Most of them were completely new: Lima, Santiago, Veracruz, Santo Domingo, Quito, Ayacucho, Arequipa.

-        Historical Asian cities: old cities, such as Samarkand, Beijing, famous during the Middle Ages. Delhi, Seoul, Manila and Jakarta have been developed during the Modern Age.

New cities and city expansion

-        New cities (18th and 19th centuries): the US received many European immigrants, which stimulated urban growth (New York, Boston)

- The expansion of new and traditional cities: After World War II, in traditional south and central American cities: Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires. Asian cities: Tokyo , Seoul, Singapore, Hong Kong. The city is surrounded by rings of suburbs.

- Recently developed cities: Performing the function of being the country’s capital: Brasilia, Canberra, Tel Aviv.

- Suburban and rural-urban growth: Current cities have no defined limits that separate rural and natural areas.

4. Urban hierarchies in the world

We can make a distinction between three different categories: world cities, continental cities and regional cities.

World cities:

-        World metropolises: Large urban centres that integrate other smaller cities within their metropolitan areas: New York, Tokyo and London. When a metropolitan area is formed of two or more cities, we call it a conurbation.

-        Megacities: According to the UN, cities with more than 10 million inhabitants. They are economic, political and administrative centres that influence the rest of the world: Tokyo, Shanghai, Seoul, Delhi, Mexico, Manila, New York, Sao Paulo.

-        Megalopolises: Large-scale urban agglomerations formed by the metropolitan áreas of several cities being joined by their transport systems.

o   BosWash: Boston-NY-Philadelphia-Baltimore-Washington, 50 million.

o   Chipitts: Chicago-Detroit-Cleveland-Pittsburgh, 25 million.

o   SanSan: San Francisco-Los Angeles-San Diego, 35 million.

o   Tokaido: Tokyo-Nagoya-Osaka-Yokohama-Kobe, 60 million.

-        Global cities: Global influence as regards certain activities.

o   Technology: Silicon Valley, Seattle, Bangalore.

o   Transport: Rotterdam, Dubai, Singapore.

o   Finance: NY, Tokyo, London, Frankfurt.

o   Trade: Dubai, Hong Kong, Singapore.

Continental and regional cities

-        Continental cities: They govern large áreas and their influence can be felt across a whole continent.

o   Europe: London, Paris, Madrid, Berlin.

o   America: San Francisco, Mexico, Buenos Aires.

o   Africa: Johannesburg

o   Asia: Beijing, Delhi, Seoul.

-        Regional cities: They have a supranational influence, covering large áreas of the continent.

o   Europe: Milan, Barcelona.

o   Africa: Cairo, Cape Town, Casablanca.

o   America: Rio de Janeiro, Miami, Atlanta.

o   Asia: Jakarta, Manila.

o   Oceania: Sydney, Melbourne.

Medium-sized cities

The services found in larger cities, but their smaller size makes them more accesible to their inhabitants.

-        Spain: Vitoria-Gasteiz, Pamplona, Santander.

They are smaller than world, continental and regional cities.

5.- World cities in the 21st century

Cities in Europe and Spain

-        West: Fundamentally urban with many cities of different sizes: London, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Birmingham.

These are among the most developed and vibrant cities in Europe. They were the centre of the Industrial Revolution and are now home to tertiary sector activities and are centres of political power.

-        Central-East: Isolated towns of great size: Vienna, Prague, Budapest, Warsaw and Bucharest, Moscow, St. Petersburg, Volgograd.

-        South: Athens, Lisbon, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Rome, Milan, Naples, Turin, Florence.

American cities

The model of the traditional colonial city still persists in many American cities, as does the North American model which consists of a large business centre and an enormous space used as a residential area.

-        USA and Canada: created during the 17th century during the british colonisation: Boston, NY, Baltimore and Philadelphia.

Towards the south we find Atlanta and Miami, and halfway between the north and south of the USA there is Washington. Between the Appalachian Mountains and the Great Lakes is one of the main urban centres of the Industrial Revolution. Pittsburgh (Steel), Detroit and Cleveland (cars and manufacturing), and Chicago (financial activity, agricultural and livestock markets).

Near the confluence of the Mississippi, Ohio and Missouri, St. Louis and New Orleans. Further to the west, Texan cities of Houston, Dallas and San Antonio.

In the north Pacific, Seattle and the extensión of the área into Canada (Vancouver). In the centre, San Francisco, and in the south, Los Angeles to San Diego and Tijuana, in Mexico.

-        Mexico and Central America: Mexico City and Sao Paulo are the largest cities in Central and South America. Guadalajara in the centre. Acapulco on the Pacific Coast. Cancun on the Caribbean Sea. In the west, Havana, Sto. Domingo.

-        South America: Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro have experienced a process of very rapid growth (favela quarters are a result of this process).

-        Other major cities in South America are: Buenos Aires, Santiago, Lima, Caracas.

The cities of Asia and Oceania

The urban population of Asia is equivalent to 2 billion people. Asia contains the highest percentage of the world’s urban population as well as the largest cities.

-        China is the most densely populated country in the world, and over 740 million people, equivalent to the entire population of Europe live in cities. Shanghai, Beijing and Hong Kong.

-        Japan and South Korea: Tokyo is the most populated in the world (35 million). It extends to other major cities, such as Yokohama, Nagoya, Osaka and Kobe.

-        India: The second most populated country in the world. Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Bangalore.

-        Other Asian countries: Karachi (Pakistan), Dhaka (Bangladesh), Jakarta (Indonesia), Manila (Philippines), Singapore, Bangkok (Thailand), Tehran (Iran), Baghdad (Iraq), Dubai (United Arab Emirates).

-        Oceania: With more than one million inhabitants are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide and Perth. Canberra is a recent planned city.

African cities

Historically, Africa has been a continent without cities, apart from the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlas Mountains where medieval, traditional Muslim cities were located.

-        North Africa:  The area between the valley and the Nile Delta was the location of ancient Memphis and the pyramids of Giza, and currently Cairo. Other cities are the Casablanca-Rabat (7 million) and Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile.

-        Sub-Saharan Africa and Guinea: Dakar, at the mouth of the Senegal River. Khartoum, in Sudan. Abuja, in Nigeria (Africa’s most populated country) was created in 1976 to be the country’s capital.

-        Central Africa: It has not been planned or structured. The main areas are Kinshasa (capital of Congo), Luanda (Angola), Addis Abeba (Ethiopia) and Nairobi (Kenya).

-        South Africa: Johannesburg (7,6 million), in the interior, and the major ports of Cape Town and Durban.

6. The problems and values of present-day cities

The population of cities grow rapidly, and in some cases in a disorganised way, consequently creating new problems or highlighting pre-existing ones.

Currently, cities release over 70% of CO2 emissions and consume huge quantities of raw materials (water, energy, food). However, there are also areas where development is taking place. Cities in developing countries generate the 55% of their GDP while in more advanced and developed countries it reaches up th 85%.

According to the United Nations, cities are more efficient than villages in the way they use space because they cause less damage to the natural environment and it is more economical to meet the needs of a dense urban population than of a dispersed rural population.

LA ORGANIZACIÓN TERRITORIAL DE ESPAÑA

La Constitución de 1978 define España como una nación integrada por nacionalidades y regiones, con capacidad de autogobierno. El texto constitucional no definió cuáles debían ser dichas nacionalidades y regiones, pero estableció el procedimiento para que, a partir de las provincias existentes, pudieran formarse las que se denominarían Comunidades Autónomas, que podrían estar constituidas por una o varias provincias.

Tras la aprobación de la Constitución, en un plazo de algo menos de tres años (entre 1980 y 1983), todo el territorio nacional se organizó en Comunidades Autónomas. De dicho proceso resultaron un total de 17 comunidades. Posteriormente, en el año 1995 y de acuerdo también con las posibilidades que ofrecía la Constitución, las dos ciudades españolas ubicadas en el norte de África – Ceuta y Melilla- adquirieron el estatuto de Ciudades Autónomas.

Las 17 Comunidades Autónomas presentan diferencias, tanto con respecto a su dimensión y densidad de población, como a sus variados orígenes históricos. Siete de ellas son uniprovinciales, es decir, se corresponden con otras tantas provincias del mapa político preconstitucional; son las siguientes: Principado de Asturias (antes provincia de Oviedo); Cantabria (antes provincia de Santander); La Rioja (antes provincia de Logroño); Comunidad Foral de Navarra (antes Navarra); Comunidad de Madrid (antes provincia de Madrid); Islas Baleares (antes provincia de Baleares); y Región de Murcia (antes provincia de Murcia). Las 10 Comunidades Autónomas restantes son pluriprovinciales, es decir, están formadas por dos o más provincias, siempre contiguas.

Hay Comunidades Autónomas que tienen un origen histórico, es decir, son territorios que constituyeron circunscripciones políticas en un pasado más o menos lejano, y que ya estaban en el mapa de las regiones españolas anterior a la Constitución de 1978. Tres de ellas -Cataluña, País Vasco y Galicia- contaron incluso con el reconocimiento de autonomía política durante la II República (1931- 1936). Otras tienen también raíces histórico-geográficas, aunque no alcanzaron la autonomía durante el periodo republicano: Andalucía, Aragón, Principado de Asturias, Canarias, Comunidad Foral de Navarra, Comunidad Valenciana, Extremadura e Islas Baleares. En las restantes las situaciones son diversas: Castilla y León surgió de la integración de los antiguos reinos medievales de León y Castilla, pero sin la provincia de Logroño, que pasó a ser la comunidad de La Rioja, y de Santander, que constituyó Cantabria; Castilla-La Mancha se formó con las provincias de Castilla la Nueva, exceptuando Madrid que adquirió la condición de Comunidad uniprovincial, y la agregación de Albacete. Por último, la Región de Murcia quedó integrada por una sola provincia –la de Murcia-, aunque había estado unida a la de Albacete en el mapa político regional anterior a 1978.

Todas las Comunidades Autónomas tienen capacidad de autogobierno en materia ejecutiva (cada una cuenta con su gobierno autonómico), legislativa (tienen parlamentos, con diversas denominaciones) y algunas de ellas, judicial. Los estatutos de autonomía, recientemente reformados o en proceso de reforma, establecen para cada comunidad su estructura político-administrativa y desarrollan sus competencias, dentro de los límites que establece la Constitución.

Las Comunidades Autónomas se organizan en provincias y municipios. Pero de acuerdo con la Constitución y con sus respectivos estatutos, algunas han establecido otras circunscripciones administrativas como, por ejemplo, las Comarcas. Así sucede en Cataluña, Aragón y Galicia, que han definido la comarca como territorio político-administrativo con entidad y competencias propias, y han aprobado sus respectivos mapas comarcales.

La organización territorial de buena parte de España, y su expresión cartográfica, tiene raíces históricas muy antiguas, medievales en la mayor parte de los casos. Es precisamente la Historia lo que explica la existencia de discontinuidades o enclaves, sectores localizados fuera de las fronteras o límites continuos de una entidad administrativa. Para evitar conflictos territoriales, todas las entidades locales deben contar con certificaciones que fijen las demarcaciones de sus términos.

Las modificaciones en la organización municipal han sido históricamente numerosas. Actualmente se observan dos procesos contrapuestos: mientras que en las zonas despobladas se tiende a una paulatina reducción del número de municipios, en aquellas donde la población se ha concentrado se produce una reorganización administrativa para conseguir una gestión más eficaz. A su vez el auge del turismo, y el desarrollo de grandes urbanizaciones en la periferia lejana de los núcleos costeros, ha permitido en algunos casos la creación de términos municipales nuevos.

Consulta aquí el Mapa de España, para repasar provincias, Comunidades Autónomas, y sus capitales.

Consulta aquí el mapa de Euskadi

Unit 5. 1. Economic activities

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Economy

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 6. 2. Primary sector

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Primary sector

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 7. 3. Secondary sector

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Secondary sector

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 8. 4. Tertiary sector

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Tertiary sector

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 9. 5. Modern Times

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Modern Times

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 10. 6. Modern States

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Modern States

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 11. 7. Habsburgs

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Habsburgs

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

Unit 12. 8. Baroque

El estudio de esta unidad se realizará a través del texto recogido en el principio de esta página, correspondiente a:

• Baroque

En el cuaderno, hay que elaborar un esquema que recoja todos los puntos abordados en la unidad.

*****************************************************************************************************************************************************

La siguiente documentación se refiere a información ya recogida en documentación anterior, por lo que NO constituye materia de examen, sino de consulta.

1.1.     What is Economy?

Economy refers to all the activities of a country related to production, distribution, trading and consumption of goods and services. The economy of a country is measured through the GDP (Gross Domestic Product).

v Goods are materials that people consume in order to satisfy their needs. Goods are tangible and physical.

v Services are intangible products such as accounting, banking, cleaning, insurance, transportation…

v GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is the total value of all the services and goods produced by a country during a specific period of time, usually a year.

v GDP per capita is the total value of all the goods and services produced by a country in a particular year, divided by the number of people living there.

1.2.     Economic sectors

All the economic activities are divided in three groups called sectors:

Primary Sector

Economic activities that obtain resources directly from nature.

Examples: agriculture, livestock farming, fishing and forestry

Secondary Sector

Economic activities that transform materials into finished or semi-finished products.

Examples: industry, energy production, mining and construction.

Tertiary Sector

Economic activities that produce services for people of for companies. Examples: tourism, transport, commerce, health service, education,

cleaning, banking, programming…

1.3.     Evolution of the economic sectors in Spain

o  Till 1850 most of the people worked in the primary sector, mainly in agriculture and livestock farming (75%). By the other side few people worked in the secondary and tertiary sectors. Most people were farmers and lived in rural areas.

o  During the 19th and 20th century the distribution changed considerably due to the industrial revolution and the modernisation of industry. Most of the population worked in the secondary sector (55%), while the primary sector needed fewer workers thanks to mechanisation (20%). The tertiary sector was increasing, but still not very important (25%). Many people moved from rural areas to the cities (rural exodus).

o  After the oil crisis in 1975 the secondary sector started a critical period and lost many workers, in part due to the crisis and in part due to mechanisation and the use of robots (27%). The tertiary sector became the most important sector (70%), due to the improvement of living conditions people could have access to more services. The primary sector needed fewer workers thanks to the use of machines (3%).

1700 - 1850

1850 – 1975

1975 - Nowadays

Primary: 75%

Secondary: 15%

Tertiary: 10%

Primary: 20%

Secondary: 55%

Tertiary: 25%

Primary: 3%

Secondary: 27%

Tertiary: 70%

v In this graph you can see in a different way the evolution of the three economic sectors through history.

1.4. Economic Sectors in all the countries of the world – Economic inequalities Depending on the economic situation of a country the distribution of the economic sectors will vary.

We can distinguish between the following countries:

§  LEDCs (Less Economically Developed Countries), also known as Underdeveloped Countries.

§  NIC (Newly Industrialised Country), also known as Emerging Countries.

§  MEDCs (More Economically Developed Countries), also known as Developed Countries.

LEDCs

NICs

MEDCs

(People employed in each sector)

LEDCs

NICs

MEDCs

Primary Sector

Most of the people work in the primary sector. The technology is traditional and they produce crops for their consumption.

Less people work in agriculture because they start working in industries and also because of the use of machinery in agriculture (tractors, harvesters...). Anyway the amount of people that work in agriculture is still important.

Few people work in this sector, due to the use of machinery and to the fact that proportionally more people work in the other sectors.

Very advanced technology and machinery. The production is aimed to internal and international

markets.

Secondary Sector

It is not very developed. It is based on traditional technology and obsolete machinery. It’s not competitive.

Multinationals install industries in these countries in order to take advantage of cheap labour and the emergent market. They have access to modern machinery, although they depend of foreign technology because the patents belong to the multinationals.

Although some years ago the proportion was very high (55%), nowadays industry has lost importance due to the increase of the tertiary sector and the introduction of machines, robots and computers (25%)

Tertiary Sector

It is not very developed either. It is not specialised, it doesn’t require training and is based in informal jobs.

It is becoming more important because the standards of living are increasing and people demand more specialised services in education, health care, transport, retail…

The majority of the population work in tertiary activities, such as hospitals, schools, banks, leisure industry, Information Technology (IT)…

Others

This country is in the early stages of development. In general the salaries are very low. It’s still a poor country with low standards of living and low demand for

manufactured products.

The standards of living are increasing and the internal market is becoming more important.

The economic development is increasing too.

There are high standards of living and the internal market is well structured and with a high level of consumption.

Trade

They sell raw materials that are cheap and they cannot buy expensive machinery or

manufactured goods in return.

There are more exports of manufactured products.

These countries import cheap raw materials and export expensive manufactured products

2.1.     What is Globalisation1?

Globalisation is a term that describes the current economic situation where the exchanges and connections between countries have reached a maximum level.

We can say that globalisation is the process of international integration of the economies and cultures of the world. Goods, services, people, ideas and cultures are exchanged between countries at a level not known so far.

2.2.     Factors or causes

Some factors have helped to promote Globalisation. These factors are:

¤

The improvement of transport that helps to increase the transportation of goods and people all around the world.

¤ The progress of communication that facilitates companies to communicate and transfer information. This is essential for outsourcing*.

¤ The expansion of the capitalist system. Many countries have accepted the capitalist system and its policy of promotion of free trade. This tendency

has increased the exchange of goods, services, capital, ideas and cultures.

¤ The role of international organisations, such as WTO (World Trade Organisation), G-8, G- 20, EU (European Union). These organisations promote free trade all over the world.

¤ The role of multinational that are interested in the growth of this phenomenon2, as it helps to increase their benefits.

2.3.     Consequences

We can divide the consequences in two groups, positive and negative consequences.

Positive consequences

þ The global market is bigger. The global market refers to all the transactions that are made all around the world: goods, capitals, services…

þ The exchange of goods and services is easier and more accessible.

þ Production is organised in a worldwide scale. Some countries can be specialised in some goods, or manufactured products or services, depending on their physical and human conditions.

1       Globalisation in British English and Globalization in American English

2       The plural of phenomenon is phenomena (it comes from Ancient Greece).

þ Economies of scale are more profitable.

þ Multinationals increase their profits. They will have access to cheap raw materials and cheap labour of LEDCs and they will be able to sell the manufactured products or services in the MEDCs.

Negative consequences

v  Poor countries will be exploited.

v Loss of jobs in developed countries when a multinational move the factory to countries with cheap labour.

v Small companies find increasingly difficult to compete with multinationals or TNCs (Transnational Corporations).

v Governments from underdeveloped and developed countries are influenced in their political and economic decisions by TNCs and lobbies

§  As an example of this it is always mentioned that the multinational PepsiCo controls more money than the GDP of many countries; in fact if Pepsico was a country it would be in the position number 99, in a higher position than Nepal, Macau, Slovenia, Luxembourg, Paraguay, etc.

v Accumulation of wealth by few people. 1% of the world population accumulates more wealth than the 99% of the population.

v Poor countries become poorer. The underdeveloped countries end up trapped in the vicious circle of poverty.

v Environmental problems. Multinationals exploit natural resources from poor countries without much respect for the environment. Some examples are:

§  The exploitation of water resources in India by Coca Cola.

§  The destruction of ancient and unique forests in Russia by Ikea.

§  The destruction of the tropical rainforest in Indonesia in order to produce palm oil for the food industry.

§  The reduction of genetic diversity due to the GMOs. The multinational Monsanto (and in general the GMOs -Genetically Modified Organisms-) reduces the genetic diversity of plants and controls the market of seeds.

§  Some countries end up as Dumping sites (vertederos), as they receive an incredible amount of waste from developed countries.

2.4.     Geo-economic regions

The world can be divided in different regions, depending on the economic development of each one.

1.     The Triad: includes the three most developed areas of the world: USA and Canada, European Union and Japan.

2.     The emerging countries: they were underdeveloped countries but after a process of investment and economic growth they have improved their economic status. Some countries are Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, China, India, South Korea, Indonesia, Singapore, Taiwan, Malaysia…

3.     Regional Powers: these are developed countries that have a great influence in their region that is usually an underdeveloped area. Some countries are: Russia, South Africa, Australia, etc.

4.     Underdeveloped countries: these type or countries are in Africa, Latin America and Asia.

An economic system is a specific way in which a nation manages its resources, goods and services.

In this section you will learn the different economic systems that exist nowadays and what is the economic system of Spain.

3.1.     The communist system

This system appeared after the Russian revolution of 1917 and after World War II it spread to many countries in Europe, Asia and America, and nowadays it still exists in some countries such as North Korea, Vietnam, Laos, China and Cuba.

In the communist system the State is the owner of all the factories, companies and all the means of production (capital, machinery, buildings, minerals, land…). The system is also known as planned economy because the State decides what to produce, how much to produce, the prices of the products and the salaries of the workers.

The objective of this system is to achieve social equality, provide basic products to all the population and that the State controls the economy.

3.2. The capitalist system

In this system the economy is regulated only by the market, because of that it is also known as market economy. This system appeared in the 19th century and it was inspired in the ideas of Adam Smith and David Ricardo.

This system exists in many countries nowadays; the best example is the United States of America. Private companies own the means of production. Prices and salaries are set by the market and the law of supply and demand (ley de la oferta y la demanda).

The objective is to obtain the maximum benefit for the companies.

3.3.     Keynesian system

The Keynesian system appeared as a solution for the deficiencies of the capitalist system (repeated economic crisis, oligopoly and monopoly, exploitation…). This system appeared after the serious economic crisis of 1929, when the State intervened in economy as the only possible way to stop the crisis. It is considered a mixture between the capitalist system and the communist system, because of that it is also known as mixed system.

In the Keynesian system the State intervenes in economy, with legislation, creation of public companies and social policies.

The objective is to achieve social equality and also to limit the policies of the capitalist system.

3.4.     Neoliberal system

The Neoliberal system appeared in the 1990’s and is the renewed version of the capitalist system. This system defends the total liberalisation of the economy and the non-intervention of the state in the economy.

The objective is the same as in the capitalist system, to obtain the maximum benefit for the companies.

4.1.     Active and Inactive population

Did you know that unemployed people can be active population? Let’s explain this.

1)       Active population: refers to all the people that are working (occupied population), but also it refers to the people that is unemployed (unoccupied population).

In general, it refers to all the people that can work and that want to work, regardless they are working or not.

2)       Inactive population: refers to the people that are not part of the working force of a country. They can be students, pensioners3, housewives (or homemakers) and people of independent means4.

3)       Activity rate: is the percentage of people that can provide labour in a country. This rate gives you information about the possibilities of a country and also about its population.

3       Pensioners can be retired people and also disabled people.

4 People of independent means (rentistas) are people that don’t need to work because they receive incomes from their properties and capital.

a. If the country is very old the active population is very low.

b.     If the country is very young the active population is low, but it will increase in the future.

Active population x 100 Total Population

4)       Unemployment rate: it gives you information about the people that is unoccupied. It is divided by the active population, not by the total population.

Unoccupied population x 100 Active Population

4.2.     Labour Market

The labour market is ruled by the law of supply and demand. The supply is offered by the companies, by the state (civil servants) and by the workers themselves (self-employed, freelance) (autónomos); the demand is composed by the people that want to work.

In this labour market there are three agents that interact among them, they are the Government, the trade unions and the employers’ associations (patronales).

a)   The Government passes the laws that rule the labour market, such as labour reforms, working conditions, working hours, minimum wage (salario mínimo interprofesional)…

b)  Trade unions are organisations that represent workers. Trade unions are agents between workers and the Government, and also between workers and employers. Trade unions appeared in the 19th century during the industrial revolution. Their objective is to protect the rights of workers.

c)   Employer’s associations are organisations that defend the interests of employers. They are agents between employers and the Government, and also between employers and workers. Employers’ associations try to get the best conditions for their economic activities, such as better tax conditions, economic subsidies, advantageous labour reforms…

There are still many problems that shall be confronted by the trade unions and the workers themselves, such as unemployment, child labour, workers exploitation and discrimination against women.