Thanks to industrialization and overseas colonies, most of the Western Hemisphere - Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands, for example - is dominating the global political order. Our old land-empire friends, such as as the Ottomans, Austria-Hungary, Russian Empire, and the Qing Dynasty collapse and will be replaced by new rising powers like Japan (post-Meiji Restoration) and the US (recently acquiring the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam). In addition, after the World Wars, former colonies ultimately formed their own independent nations and states by the end of the 20th century through peace (India) or by bloodshed (Kenya). They mostly resulted from internal and external challenges to existing orders in politics and societies: dissatisfaction with leaders, foreign invaders, conflicts between social classes, and revolutions. Due to the anti-colonial sentiments expressed by locals through uprisings and revolutions, the imperial model of government is proven to be ineffective. As a result, its prevalence dropped by the 1900s. Even up to this day, we hear about “countries” or “nations,” not “empires.”

Interestingly, World War I was caused by multiple long-term causes, including one immediate cause that served as the final straw towards European escalation. These causes can be best summarized using the acronym M.A.I.N. The first, militarism, refers to the build-up of a country’s arms and firepower to outpace neighboring nations in military might. Industrialization further intensified this process as each nation produced vast arsenals of deadly weapons ranging from mustard gas to flamethrowers within a span of months or years, not decades. To avoid constant worries about invasions from all sides and tip the balance of power to their favor, nations established the second major cause, alliances with their neighbors. Alliances not only offered guaranteed safety and protection from member states but also stimulated trade between them. By World War I, Europe was defined by two major alliances: Triple Alliance & the Triple Entente. Thirdly, there was a competition by some European nations to acquired more overseas territories than the others through imperialism. Imperialism led to jealously and animosity. Finally, there was that growing sense of Nationalism, which destabilized ethnically diverse nations such as Austro-Hungary and Serbia as certain ethnic groups within the state wanted an independent nation consisting of their people. Growing nationalist sentiment fed fuel to the torch of militarism and the desire to use weaponry to expand the glory of the state and its people. That was allowed to happen once the Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated on Sunday, 28 June 1914, at approximately 10:45 am.

WWI is the first global conflict that is globally acknowledged as a form of total war - one in which everyone’s a target, any weapon is permitted, and the scope of the battlefield is unlimited. We’ll see a lot of historic firsts in WWI in terms of conducting war from the amount of devastation to the types of military technology used. Germany is at war with Russia and France, as well as their allies. Unfortunately, this leaves Germany in a tough spot because it is flanked by France on its west and Russia on its east. Knowing this, experts crafted what is known as the two-pronged Schlieffen Plan: defeat France first and then invade still-industrializing Russia given the latter’s delay in mobilizing all its forces. The plan completely fell through as the Germans underestimated the might of the French. By the time Russia was able to consolidate and deploy its troops, Germany still hadn't defeated France. As a result, Germany had to fight on two fronts: the Western Front and the Eastern Front. Modern warfare isn’t just about brute force as it also has a strategic element that closes the gap between a 100,000-men strong battalion and a 1,000-men strong regiment. Underground trench systems were established by both sides along the eastern and western fronts to protect troops from artillery and gunfire from above the ground, which in turn created “no-man’s lands.”When a country is at war, its economy shifts towards one heavily focusing on the production of weapons, ammunition, and aid packages alongside more supplies that’ll aid troops abroad. The Home Front refers to everything the government does to support the nation’s cause in war. To encourage intense and fervent nationalism while avoiding opposition that could hinder war efforts, governments resort to political propaganda, any art or media that promotes local support against a cause or enemy being degraded in such works.

WWI ends, November 11, 1918, and the victorious alliance convened in France as part of the Treaty of Versailles. The immediate threat might be over, but Europe also became significantly weaker than ever before due to economic problems induced by wartime commitment: inflation, debts to lender countries like the US, and loss of investments overseas. The Great Depression exposed the weaknesses of the old capitalist system. The prolonging of the depression eventually compelled governments to directly intervene, in the economy. One economist, John Keynes, pioneered 'Keynesian economics' set of theories which states that governments must stimulate the economy. U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) used this theory as a model for his New Deal. However, alternatives are utilized in the Soviet Union (Russia). After the civil war in Russia that caused it to withdraw during WWI, communism became the norm in the region. Large industries, banks, and private businesses continued to operate under state control under Vladimir Lenin’s New Economic Policy. After his death, Joseph Stalin’s ambitious vision replaced the NEP with his Five Year Plans to catch up with industrial powers in the west. Under this policy, industrializing steel and machinery come first before consumer goods. Stalin then collectivized agriculture and profits were shared by every farmer. Farmers were expected to promote agricultural productivity by meeting production quotas every 5 years. Those who did not meet these goals were severely punished and sent to labor camps (gulags). Finally, in Italy, Benito Mussolini & in Germany, with Hilter, spearheaded the fascist corporatist economy. Corporatism emphasized state control over private companies and industries serving as the means of production.

At the Paris Peace Conference, President Woodrow Wilson presented his Fourteen Points, which included the end of colonies, reduction of arms, free trade between countries, and self-determination in former territories by major powers. However, this proposal was shot down by France & England who were uninterested in letting go of colonies. In Asia, however, Japan was a rising star during WWI as it helped secure sea lanes as part of the Allies victory. Even before that, Japan had proven to be a formidable force after defeating China & Russia in previous conflicts c. 1900. Already having Korea and parts of China under its belt, Japan finally invaded Manchuria. The League of Nations wasn't able to do something as it watched its former member expand their reach and destroy everything in its path. The notorious Rape of Nanjing (1937) showed the worst side of Japanese humanity. Japan ended up consolidating the East and parts of Southeast Asia under its Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The Ottoman Empire, on the other hand, dissolved in the Middle East while the British, French, and other Allies’ controlled these 'mandates'. Unlike colonies from earlier centuries, the winning countries ruled these areas under the justification that they are doing so until they are ready to “self-determine” (self-rule) for themselves. There was also counter imperialism strategies and transnational movements that emerged in some colonies. Two movements, in particular, have gained traction in their respective regions. Pan-Africanism called for the union of every African group regardless of their current location (within Africa or abroad). Pan-Arabism likewise echoed the desire of Arabs to be under a single, unified nation. Finally, increased literacy rates led to the formation of nationalist organizations that called for independence within European colonies. For example, Indian National Congress, formed by Mohandas Gandhi, called for Britain’s peaceful departure from India through negotiated independence.

The Great Depression led to the collapse of countless governments across the world. The lack of government activity fermented chaos and resentment. But the depression also gave political opportunities to some-- namely Adolf Hitler, who used the economic situation as a platform to 'restart' Germany’s economy & nationalism. His bold promises to get Germany out of the Treaty of Versailles reparation payments and become a leading power in Europe won over the German people. The Paris Peace Conference failed to solve the problems of imperialism and proper accountability, leaving the former Allies and Central Powers still arguing about colonies. Moreover, Hitler will use ultra-nationalism to unifying the German people. He convinced them they were a “superior race” - under one, Nazi, flag. In the same decade, Italy, and Benito Mussolini, had already given rise to fascist governments, clear evidence that the peace settlement in Paris was diplomatically worthless. A direct response to the rise of Nazi totalitarianism and staunch nationalism motivated a feeling of revenge against the Allies and personal justice for the German people. Hitler began to mobilize his forces. Nazi Germany will train a total of 13.6 million troops to fight in WWII. He also ordered the swift construction of naval destroyers as a show of might and massive airforce, Luftwaffe. But how will the rest of Europe respond to his blatant disregard for the Treaty of Versailles? With silence -- appeasement. Finally, in September 1939, Hitler invaded Poland and western Europe was right back where they were in 1918 - war. After 20 years of uncertain peace, the world appeared to be at war once again.

World War II, like World War I, was a total war. Colonies of the Allied Powers, such as India (Britain), also joined the war, making it a truly global conflict on a much greater scope than WWI as it now included more countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, and even the Americas. Under Winston Churchill’s leadership, Great Britain remained unfazed by Germany’s blitzkrieg (swift war) tactics. His military ingenuity allowed him to hold off Hitler’s forces after the fall of France in 1940 despite being close to the defeated nation. Franklin Roosevelt took advantage of the war to mobilize the United States’s undamaged factories and ramp up their production of everything from ammunition to aircraft.The US also led the liberation efforts in the Pacific, which was the other major war theatre, against Japan through an “island hopping” strategy. In terms of logistics, morale, and productivity, totalitarian regimes fell behind in mobilization efforts. Attitudes and policies made their war machines less effective as time went on. Propaganda and art were used heavily by both western democracies and totalitarian states (more by the latter). World War II featured upgrades of previously featured weapons. To name a few, tanks are now better adapted to more environments, more varieties of firearms are used based on the range of combat, and atomic weapons such as those infamously dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki have destructive capabilities hundreds of times deadlier than the classic mustard gas from WWI.

Atrocities depicting the dark side of humanity did not stop at the Rape of Nanjing or any other vicious war crime before that. Genocides and other acts of ethnic violence were committed to destroying specific groups, races, and/or populations, often viewed as inferior based on hierarchical principles such as Social Darwinism. One of the most notorious instances of mass violence was the Holocaust. In history, it goes down as the worst outbreak of anti-Semitism, claiming the lives of 6 million Jews. Before the peak of World War II, Hitler forcibly expelled the Jewish communities out of Germany and based on his Final Solution policy was to kill all Jews in Europe. But this horrific genocide was not alone in the 20th century. Here are others: the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire in 1915–1923, the Holodomor in former Soviet Ukraine (Stalin's doings) in 1932–1933; Bangladesh in 1971, Cambodia in 1975–1979, East Timor in 1975–1999, Bosnia in 1991–1995, and Rwanda in 1994, just to name a few.