Industrialization Outside the West - Russia and Japan

In the wake of the French Revolution, Russia turned from following Western models. Alexander I supported the Holy Alliance in their defense of the religious and political order. Yet Russian intellectuals maintained ties to the West. Pushkin was one of many writers to embrace and enhance the Romantic style. The Decembrist Uprising of 1825 pushed Nicholas I to become more conservative. Restrictions on political freedom followed. The revolutions of 1830 and 1848 skipped Russia. At the same time, Russia expanded its territory. A Polish national uprising in 1830–1831 was brutally suppressed. Pushing south, Russia took Ottoman lands and supported Greek independence.

Russian industrialization did not keep pace with the West. Peasant labor service was increased to meet demands for grain exports, and the grain trade did have a positive effect on industrialization. The Crimean War—from 1854 to 1856—pitted Russia against the Ottoman Empire. France and Britain, fearful of expanding Russian power, supported the Ottomans. Russian leaders saw the advantage industrialization had given Western powers, and Alexander II pushed for reform. Serfdom was a key issue, and reforming the institution was clearly necessary.

The emancipation of the serfs, in 1861, was carefully planned to maintain tsarist control. The serfs received lands, but had to pay redemption fees. Peasant revolts actually increased because of disappointment at the limitations of the reforms. The tsar set up zemstvos [local elected councils], which gave some political experience to more Russians. The army was reformed and recruitment expanded. Literacy and demands for popular fiction increased. Women’s roles broadened. Industrialization was part of these changes. The trans-Siberian railroad linked western Russia to the Pacific, additionally stimulating the coal and iron industries. Industrialization picked up, especially in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Polish towns. Sergei Witte, the minister of finance from 1892 to 1903, modernized the Russian economy. Foreign control increased, and Russia became a debtor nation. While the volume of manufactures was large, Russia was still only partly industrialized.

Minority nationals raised concerns in Russia, but were secondary to the dislocations caused by industrialization. Calls for reform developed along two lines. Liberal reforms were sought by businesspeople and professionals. The intelligentsia and student groups called for more radical reform, but remained isolated. Lastly, anarchists aimed to end all government. Failing to find popular support, they turned to violence. Alexander II responded by withdrawing support for reform. He was assassinated in 1881. Repressive measures followed, including anti-Semitic policies, and pogroms. Marxism took hold by the 1890s. Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, Lenin, adapted Marx’s ideas to Russian conditions. His version of Marxism was adopted by the Bolsheviks. Dissatisfaction grew among workers, who unionized and organized strikes. These different currents of unrest made revolution in Russia likely.

Russia made gains against the Ottoman Empire in the late 19th century. Aiding the Serbian and Bulgarian independence movements added to Russian pride. However, the Russo-Japanese War broke out in 1904, when Russia threatened Japan’s regional control. The Russian defeat led to the Russian Revolution in 1905. The tsars created the Duma [a national elected assembly] to satisfy liberals. The Stolypin reforms eased the peasants’ redemption payments. Kulaks, peasant entrepreneurs, bought land to develop. The duma’s power was steadily weakened, and the Russian government turned its attention to the Balkans.

Similar patterns existed in other eastern European nations. Some chose parliamentary governments, some monarchies. Eastern Europe experienced a period of cultural flowering, with new pride in Slavic culture.

Japan’s Shogunate ruled in the early 19th century, with few changes. Shrinking revenues weakened the power of the shoguns after 1850. Developments in intellectual life included the terakoya, or public schools, leading to literacy rates of 40% for men and 15% for women. Nationalist leanings led to the celebration of Shintoism and Japanese culture. At the same time, “Dutch studies” continued in spite of bans on Western reading. Controlled by monopolies, commerce boomed. Slowing economic growth after 1850 and riots in rural areas led to a climate where change was welcome.

The arrival of Matthew Perry in 1853 threatened Japanese isolation. By 1856, two Japanese ports were open to U.S. commerce. The emperor was pressured to open the country further. Samurai were especially keen, hoping that the change would dislodge the shogun. The samurai began using American firearms in 1866 and defeated the shogun’s troops. Reform came with the installation of a new emperor—Mutsuhito—called Meiji.

The Meiji government replaced the daimyo system with prefects. Samurai were sent to Europe and the United States to learn, turning the group into a force for change. The reforms of 1873–1876 ended samurai privileges and introduced conscription. Iwasaki Yataro is an example of a samurai who changed his stripes. Founding Mitsubishi in 1868, he built railroads and steamer lines. Political parties emerged. A new constitution in 1889 included a diet, modeled on the German legislature. Japan was successful in borrowing from the West while maintaining much of its traditional structure.

Reforms continued with an overhaul of the army and navy. Priority was given to industrialization. Internal tariffs and guilds were ended to clear the way for a unified economy. The government was closely involved in the process of industrialization. Western models were adapted to Japanese conditions. At the same time, entrepreneurs from all levels of society played an important role in the changes. Industrial conglomerations, zaibatsu, emerged. Industrialization was well advanced by 1900. Still dependent on imports, however, the country lagged behind the West. Cottage industry and sweatshops were common.

Japanese society experienced change as a result of economic and industrial change. Population growth was an important issue. Public education was offered to all, focusing on the sciences and technology. Rapid Westernization in the 1870s was replaced by more attention to Japanese values and social structure. Western lifestyles, clothes, and measures were adopted. Women’s roles saw little change. Shintoism gained ground. Foreign policy was adapted to Japan’s increasing involvement in the global economy. The Sino-Japanese War gave Japan a quick victory over China, and hegemony in Korea. Forced by European powers to abandon territory it had taken in mainland China, Japan turned its eyes to Russian lands. The Russo-Japanese War of 1904 was another Japanese victory, and Korea was annexed in 1910.

Urbanization and industrialization resulted in strains in Japanese society. Politics reflected the tensions, with assassinations and frequent dismissal of the Diet. Among intellectuals, questions were rife about Japanese culture’s survival. Their government’s response was to promote nationalism. The country thus avoided the revolutionary turmoil that affected China and Russia.