THE ISLAMIC EMPIRES

While travelers from the West flocked to the Islamic gunpowder empires to learn of its culture, language, social customs, and histories, few Muslims travelled to the “infidel lands of the Franks.”  Muslim rulers and subjects remained confident in their superiority and that they believed they had nothing to learn from Europeans. After all, Arabic was the lingua franca of Eurasia trade and new cultures and ideas tend to create political and social instability. 

An example of this cultural conservatism was the Istanbul Observatory, which was built in 1574 and was subsequently torn down three years later in a decision influenced by religious clerics. It was not until 1703 was there an attempted implement scientific instruments such as telescopes into astronomical observatories and not until 1729 did Ottoman government authorities lift the ban on the printing of books in Turkish and Arabic.  Despite missionaries bringing the printing press into India, Mughal rulers had little interest in the devices and the publication of books did not occur until the British arrived in force.

IMPERIAL CHINA

Modeled after the Ming diplomatic model, the Qing rulers regulated relations with countries beyond their borders by limiting foreign trade in  specified Chinese ports. European merchants could only trade in the southern port of Guangzhou and merchants were subject to an array of restrictions. For example, merchants were not allowed inside the walled portion of Guangzhou, learn Chinese, ride in sedan chairs, or bring weapons or women into the part of the city assigned to foreigners. Furthermore, European traders were not allowed direct access to Chinese retailers as all buying and selling of goods had to be done through Chinese merchant who were franchised by the imperial government.

Diplomacy could only be accomplished through special envoy to the court of Beijing.  When asked to respond to a British request to renegotiate trade terms, Qing Emperor Qianlong replied by stating that China “possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no product within its own borders” and that trading with Europe was a kindness and not a necessity.