Iberian Peninsula

The Reconquista was a centuries-long series of military campaigns (approximately 711–1492) during which Christian kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula gradually reclaimed territory from Muslim rulers. This effort ultimately culminated in the conquest of Granada, the last Muslim kingdom, by the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, in 1492.

Background:

In 711, Muslim forces, mostly Berbers from North Africa, conquered much of the Iberian Peninsula, establishing the Caliphate of Córdoba. Over the next several centuries, the Christian kingdoms of the north—Asturias, Leon, Castile, Aragon, and later Navarre—began pushing southward, gradually recapturing territory. The Reconquista was not a single, unified campaign but a series of regional conflicts and shifting alliances, often with local rulers vying for power alongside the larger Christian-Muslim struggle.

Key Phases:

1. Early Reconquista (8th–12th centuries): The Christian push began with the Battle of Covadonga (722), where the Visigothic nobleman Pelayo defeated Muslim forces and began the Christian resistance. Over time, Christian kingdoms expanded southward, especially Castile and Aragon.

2. High Reconquista (12th–13th centuries): During this period, the Christian kingdoms gained significant momentum, especially with the capture of Toledo (1085) and Seville (1248), consolidating power and territory. The Almohads, a powerful Muslim dynasty from North Africa, briefly regained control over much of the peninsula, but were eventually pushed out by Christian forces.

3. Final Phase (14th–15th centuries): The last major Muslim stronghold, the Kingdom of Granada, remained independent, but was surrounded by Christian territories. The Catholic Monarchs launched a final campaign in 1491, culminating in the fall of Granada in January 1492.

Consequences:

1. Unification of Spain: The Reconquista was crucial in unifying Spain under the Catholic Monarchs, laying the groundwork for the modern Spanish state. Ferdinand and Isabella's marriage united the crowns of Aragon and Castile, centralizing political and military power.

2. Religious and Cultural Impact: The end of Muslim rule marked the consolidation of Catholicism in Spain. The Spanish Inquisition was established in 1478 to enforce religious uniformity, leading to the forced conversion or expulsion of Jews and Muslims. This religious intolerance stifled cultural and intellectual diversity that had flourished under Muslim rule.

3. Exploration and Empire: The fall of Granada coincided with the beginning of Spain’s overseas expansion. In 1492, Columbus’s voyage to the Americas, financed by Ferdinand and Isabella, marked the beginning of Spain's global empire, which would shape world history for centuries.