Daily Calendar | Design Drawing and Studio Skills | Modeling | ISU [Mechanical or Industrial Design] | Architectural / Interior Design | Summative 

Interior Design is the planning, layout, and design of the interior spaces within a building. It includes the functional improvement, aesthetics and psychological enhancement of the interior space. Simply put, the interior designer seeks to make the space better, in all sense of the word, given the design constraints of the client.The interior designer usually works on two types of projects - new construction and renovation - each with its own set of problems. New construction is typically much easier than a renovation in that planning starts from scratch and re-engineering (and the potential re-distribution of loads) of interior spaces isn't needed. On the other hand, a new construction ID project doesn't yet have the character of an existing space and there isn't the same level of guidance available in coming up with complimentary designs. Nonetheless, there are a series of phases that interior designers go through in either case (the list for architects is very similar for that matter): 

PHASE I: PRE-DESIGN

Pre-design or programming is the information gathering and analytical phase. This phase includes measuring the site, taking photographs if necessary, investigating the site conditions, in the case of a renovation and clearly defining the client’s objectives. Careful consideration is given to function, spatial relationships, character and image as well as other factors that affect how the home or commercial enterprise will affect the client. The scale and character of the residence or project is determined in this phase.

PHASE II: PRELIMINARY DESIGN

This is the conceptual and exploration phase. In this phase, through bubble diagrams, adjacency matrices and rough sketches, the general layout, form and overall appearance of the premises are created. Materials boards, sketches and drawings that set the course for the construction drawings are employed in this phase. Plans, elevations, and sections are developed for client approval.

PHASE III: CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS

Construction documents are the phase where the design is translated into technical information for the contractor. Working drawings (blueprints) and specifications are prepared to define in detail all the materials that are to be incorporated into the project-residential or commercial, where they are to be located and how they are to be installed. This is the stage where collaboration with architects, engineers and contractors occurs. Although this phase is primarily intended for working out the technical aspects of the project, some design work will also take place. Things such as fixtures are selected, lighting plans and electrical plans are drawn up and plumbing fixtures and finish materials i.e. flooring, paint colours, trim and molding, etc. are selected. This is called the specifications for the project.

PHASE IV: BIDDING AND NEGOTIATION - applies if the interior designer works to completion with clients

This phase is for renovation work or commercial projects. Competitive bids or negotiated proposals from a selected list of general contractors or project managers are made. During this phase, working drawings and specifications, are delivered to all parties involved and questions from contractors are addressed. Once the bids or cost estimates are received, the ID's analyze the results and prepare the contract between the client and the selected contractor. ID's interface with the project manager at this point to ensure delivery.

PHASE V: CONSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION - applies if the interior designer works to completion with clients

In this final phase, the ID's supervise the contractor and draw up a punch list for any unfinished details to be submitted to the contractor so that a sign-off can be effected to ensure that the premises are ready for occupancy.

Software

In order to keep pace in today's increasingly complex world of architecture and design interior, designers and architects have moved to BIM software to develop concepts. BIM stands for building information modeling and automates and schedules many of the time-consuming, yet important tasks associated with building construction. BIM software is able to not only represent the project in order to help visualize every detail of construction, but is architecturally correct. It is also a critical link between the contractor and the designer in that schedules for trades and hardware purchases are easily obtained from the software. 

Plot plans are typically required with all permit and zoning applications submitted to local permitting agencies. They may be used during zoning reviews or as part of the construction permit review process. The plot plan helps the reviewing agency (usually the local government) check for conflicts with neighbors, building codes, or surrounding utility lines before a permit is issued. The plot plan can also be used to plan landscaping designs or special outdoor features like decks or pools. Once the plan is approved, it may be used by the builder when laying out the property.

Local permit or zoning agencies issue their own specific requirements for plot plans. In many cases, the plan must be drawn to scale so that features are shown in relation to one another. A directional arrow or compass should be shown that indicates how the property is oriented. Dimensions are often required as well, though in some cases, only building or overall dimensions need to be shown. The location of existing structures as well as all proposed changes or additions should be included on the plot plan.

More complex plot plans may require elevations and land contours, which require the work of a surveyor. This may include simple elevation changes or items such as driveway slopes or curb cuts. In instances where trees or building features may interfere with overhead utility lines, pictorial elevations may be required to illustrate how the lines will be protected.

Depending on the complexity of the project, plot plans may be drawn by surveyors, architects, engineers, or homeowners. When developing a plot plan, it is easiest to start with an existing plot plan or plat, which can often be found at the local land records office. If this plan is not available, the person creating the plan must start from scratch by taking measurements or surveying the land. Once the plot plan is submitted to the local permit agency, a copy is often kept on record for future use or reference.

• Once the location of new construction has been determined, the ground must be excavated to allow for the appropriate foundation to be created to support the weight of the building, and sustain the structure through all weather conditions.

Locating the construction

• Locate the corners of the house indicated by the plot plan

  • Verify the corners are square can use 9-12-15 unit method (property of 30,60, 90 triangle)

  • Even if the house is not rectangular, the exterior rectangle that would encase the home is easiest to determine for the overall area to be cleared

• Batter boards are placed on outside the buildings rectangular area (with surveying equipment and laser lines, batter boards are not used as much as they had been in the past)

  • Must be 4’ outside the exterior footing location

  • Ideally must be of equal elevation

  • E.g. If footing extends an additional 9” out from the house foundation wall, the batter board can be placed a minimum of 4’9” from the house perimeter.

  • String or wire strung between batter boards situated opposite or parallel from each other intersect with other lines from other sets of parallel batter boards. The intersection of the lines at each of the corners establishes the external corners of the lot.

  • A plumb bob is used to verify the position within the excavation.

The Excavation

• Once the size and location of the excavation is determined the excavation can take place.

• Depth is dependent on frost penetration depth (should be 6” to 1’ below this depth), depth of the basement (ceiling height) and keeping that the first floor should be a minimum of 8” above grade (ground level).

• Point of reference for the depth is from the highest corner of the structure.

• Frost line penetration in Ottawa is 42”

The Footing

• An enlarged base of the foundation wall that must be massive enough to distribute the weight of the building to the ground below. It is not required if a construction is built on rock.

• The size depends on the soil conditions

• The depth depends on the frost penetration depth in the area

• Ideally should be place on undisturbed soil.

• Poured concrete is the most widely used material

  • Footing is formed (often by using wood forms) to create the exterior edge of the footing

• Key or keyway (a groove that is formed prior to setting) can be place in footing to help keep the wall from sliding side to side

  • Generally, are 1/2 the wall thickness at the top and 1/3 the wall thickness deep, with sloping sides and is centered on the footing.

  • Alternately, rebar can be placed so it sticks up from the center of the footing so the next level can be kept in place.

• General rule for light construction (basic housing) footings are typically twice the width of the foundation wall and as high as the width of the wall.

• Rebar can be added to concrete to reinforce the footing

• Footings for chimneys and fireplaces must support greater weight and thus are larger (12” thick and extend 6” beyond the perimeter of the chimney on all sides)

• Stepped footings used on hilly terrain,

  • Each step must be completely horizontal

  • Needs rebar reinforcement on vertical and horizontal where step is located

  • Height of each step should not exceed 2’

Column or Post Footings

• Used to support concentrated loads in the building (i.e. floor joists)

• Typically for small residences is 24” square by 12” deep

  • Can hold 16,000 lbs if soil were dry firm sand or clay (see table below)

Types of Foundation walls:

• 4 basic types T-foundation, slab foundation, pier or post foundation, wood foundation.

Structure of Foundation Walls:

• Generally built of poured concrete or concrete block

Poured concrete

• • • is labour intensive to create form walls

    • time consuming to allow for concrete to set and harden

    • resists fractures from settling and allows for steel reinforcement at critical not restricted to block dimensions

    • usually 8” thick

    • limit height of structure to 10x their thickness for unreinforced walls

• generally foundation should be as thick as masonry above

  • brick or stone veneer

    • 8” thick foundation is sufficient for 1 storey

    • 10” thick foundation for 2 storey

  • Moisture conditions in the soil may require thicker walls to ensure dryness in basement (with exterior waterproofing and proper drainage)

Concrete block

• • Allows for economy in speed of erection and cost

  • Design and workmanship can be a factor in effectiveness

  • Capped with 4” solid cap block

    • Provides smooth bearing surface for wood sills etc.

  • Cores need to be filled where beams, girders and heavy loads are expected.

  • Mortar joints are the weakest part of the wall.

  • Design should not require blocks to be cut should be multiples of 8” or 16”

Exterior of foundation walls:

• Parge coat of plaster or cement mortar are used damp proof foundation wall

• Other materials like tar, rubber membranes and insulation are used to further weather proof and insulate the walls

Draining

• 4” perforated drain tile (weeping tile) is placed around the perimeter of the footing to move ground water away from the base of the structure

• Tile is covered with approximately 18”course stone or gravel

• In wet areas for additional protection sump pumps are installed to pump water away from the base of the structure

For most of the applications you will come in contact with (buildings of 2-3 stories) normal foundations consist of footings and foundation walls as long as it is on good load-bearing soil. This is often determined by a soil sample that is done by engineers to determine its weight bearing capacity and by the characteristics of the area (i.e. water flow and moisture because of bodies of water, flooding etc.) Should there be additional stresses because of the soil, an engineer may require that the footings be larger to compensate for unusual circumstances but it is basically the same theory.

HOWEVER, in heavy construction with tall and heavy buildings there are other foundation problems because their basements are deep and the columns have to hold very heavy loads. Deep basements in an area that has many other deep basements in close proximity make it uneconomical and impractical to use the conventional piers and footings. For this situation they use other alternatives to deal with the situation, among those options are peirs, piles and caissons. 

Pier foundation is a type of deep foundation, which consists of a cylindrical column of large diameter to support and transfer large superimposed loads to firm strata below.  The types of pier foundations are masonry or concrete piers.

Piers are inserted down to the bedrock and HAVE FOOTINGS. Pier is typically dug out and cast in place using forms. 

Pile foundation 

Are a type of deep foundation, in which the loads are taken to a low level by means of vertical timber, concrete or steel. 

Are long columns of concrete, steel, (or timber but not in heavy construction) or a combination of the materials that are driven into the ground to provide a foundation for a vertical load (known as a bearing pile) or a group of such columns to resist a horizontal load from earth or water pressure (known as sheet piles). The piles are pounded into the ground by pile drivers which literally drop a heavy load on the pile head to pound them into the ground. Cast-in-place piles are created by boring out holes, placing or pounding in casings and then they are filled with concrete.

Are a shell or box sometimes even a casing that is filled with concrete. It creates a structure similar to a pile that was cast-in-place but it is larger in diameter. The area is bored or drilled to the appropriate depth and then the shell is inserted and driven to the required depth. Concrete is then poured into the casing to act as a weight bearing column. 

Piles  DO NOT HAVE FOOTINGS

RESIDENTIAL FOUNDATION PLAN DETAILS

As previously stated there are different ways to enforce the basement walls if the structure has to support heavier loads. For poured walls this often means using rebar and/or thicker walls. For block walls, filling the walls with rebar and concrete also helps. Additionally, pilasters can be used in to strengthen the wall. Block walls are often capped with a 4” solid cap (also concrete) and the final basement wall, from the top of the footing to the floor joists should not be less than 7’ in height, this is because room must be left for heating ducts, plumbing and beams. The top of the basement wall is then capped by a wooden sill plate or sill, usually using 2”x6” lumber and is anchored to the wall with bolts or with anchor clips.

The floors in a house typically have a joist plan that takes into account posts, beams and spans. A span is simply the distance on a beam/joist/truss between supports. The span of most houses are too large to have unsupported floor joists (usually 2”x10” lumber) since they should not span beyond 15’. Normally it is supported on a beam (or girder) that can be either wood or metal. (Girders are large or principal beams used to support concentrated loads at isolated locations along its length.)

Wood beams can be one of three things:

1. wood that has been laminated together to provide the appropriate strength,

2. solid wood (these are much more expensive and not as available as they were in the past)

3. engineered wood products that have been created using wood, glues and pressure to withstand more force and load (e.g. LVL etc...)

Metal beams are usually one of two common types (see below):

1. S-beams (previously known as I-beams) or

2. W-beams (wide-flange beams) which can support more weight and tend to be more stable than S-beams

• If you wish to circumvent beams, lamination or man made options are available to do so, just remember it would take more material and expense. How much is ultimately decided by an engineer. A last option to avoid a beam is to create a load bearing wall in the basement. It must support the floor joist within the 15’ span as well. This wall must also have a foundation similar to the ones created for the basement wall or for the column foundation.

• The usual route is to use a beam, which must span the length of the house foundation and rests on the outside walls. A good rule of thumb is that a beam requires a column to support it approximately every 10’-15'. Finally, the post must be affixed to the beam either by bolts or clips .

• Of course the post footings would have been poured at the same time as the foundation footings so this must be calculated in advance. An additional consideration while calculating the foundation size is the material the exterior of the house is to be. If the exterior is to be brick an additional 4” must be added to the foundation thickness to support the brick. Figure 12-3 is a great example to this an example of this.

• After the footings and foundation / basement walls are complete, the area on the interior of the house must be filled, usually with crushed stone and then with 4-6” of firmly compacted sand. The concrete is poured on top of this to a minimum thickness of 4”. The floor extends above the footings on the inside of the house and should not be bonded to the footings or the interior walls and columns. Lastly, the floor should have a slight slope to allow for drainage.

Alternatively, if the joists are "hung" then there is usually a rim-board that is bolted to the foundation top of the joists run flush with the level of the rim that hangs them. You can see joists that are hung for a deck at the image at right.

On top of the joists and header the wall is constructed using 2”x6” lumber (it is no longer economical to use 2”x4” as the new insulation regulations is R22 and the depth of a 6” wall to house it). If you use 2”x”4 lumber on the exterior walls they would have to be strapped (built out) to the 6” depth. Interior walls on the other hand can be 2”x4” lumber. The walls have a sill plate (the bottom length) and then have a double top plate. Generally walls are constructed on the ground and then lifted into place. 

Floor trusses have what is called “bridging” (technically called nogging - seen at right) which is most often solid wood pieces between the trusses where they meet on top of the beam or girder. This is likely the most economical and efficient method. Although other methods are available, they are rarely used now and you are not responsible to know them. In locations where there is a break in the floor, i.e. for staircases etc. the floor joists must be doubled up, this is known as trimmer joists. Trimmer joists must enclose the entire opening and the joists would continue as if normal however, the joists are attached to the trimmer joists by metal hangers. Finally, as with discussion of types of beams, there are various engineered joist and beam systems these days including web-joists and wood I beams. Read more about them here 

Contemporary styles often include variations of the basic roof types (i.e. gable with dormers, hip with gable etc.). Take a look at the roofs in new construction and they're quite often cross-hipped roofs that have multiple steps.

You should be familiar with 3 most common truss types

• W-type or Fink Truss

• K-post truss or Howe Truss

• Scissors truss

Typically trusses are placed either 24” on center or 16” on center for heavy load areas. Detailed areas like around dormers are reinforced as if they were separate gable roofs.

Ventilation

Be familiar with requirements to obtain adequate ventilation and why we want that ventilation (pg. 423 in the text) - namely that we want air movement. Principally, hot air to be expelled in the summers and avoids the collection of moisture which will result in roof damage (rot) and or mold.

The two main approaches to ventilating a roof are:

• louvered openings (plates on underside of overhang (the soffit))

• roof vents through the surface of the roof

Roofing materials

• Asphalt shingles, wood shingles, tile, slate, copper, aluminum, galvanized steel, felt and tar layers, rubber membranes

• Depends on cost, location, weight and “look” desired.