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Rabani, K., & Tahmasbi, S. (2023).The effect of mobile-assisted flipped learning on Iranian EFL learners’ cohesive devices improvement in writing. International Journal of Research in English Education, 8(2), 82-95.

This Iranian study investigated the effect of a mobile-based flipped learning environment upon the L2 English writing of B1-B2-level female students at a language institute. Over two months, presumably using their mobile phones, via an instant messaging app (WhatsApp) 20 participants received out-of-class instruction relating to the use of written cohesive devices. Class time for these students was spent applying what was taught out-of-class. A control group of 20 received the same instruction in class and practiced during whatever time was left. Both groups significantly improved on a pre-/post-treatment writing test, but the experimental group more so than the control.

Rachels, J., & Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. (2018). The effects of a mobile gamification app on elementary students' Spanish achievement and self-efficacy. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 31 (1-2), 72-89.

This American study investigated the effectiveness of a game-based language learning app (Duolingo) upon the elementary level Spanish vocabulary/grammar acquisition and academic self-efficacy perceptions of 79 L1 English third-fourth graders.  Compared to a matched control group of 88 who were taught face-to-face, the experimental group learned the same content exclusively through the in-class use of Duolingo via loaned iPads during the same 40 minutes per-week/12-week instruction period. A post-treatment 50-item vocabulary/grammar test revealed no significant difference between the two groups, nor was any significant difference observed in post-treatment self-efficacy perceptions.

Raffone, A. (2022). Gamifying English language learning through interactive storytelling and MALL technologies. Language Teaching Research, xx, 1-21.

This Italian study evaluated the effect of a mobile-based A1-A2 level L2 English tutorial game (The Story of WordLand) upon the vocabulary and grammar skills of 83 year 7 secondary school students of unspecified L2 English competency level. Using Apple smartphones, participants played the game once during a class session. Compared to a matched control group of 12 that did not play the game, the experimental group demonstrated significantly greater gains on a pre-/post-test. A pre-/post-treatment questionnaire also revealed within the experimental group an increased engagement toward the English language and enhanced motivation towards the subject matter.

Rafiq, S. (2020). Perceptions of phonics literacy strategies in Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) for non-literate learners. MA thesis, Manchester Metropolitan University.

This British MA describes the perceptions of twelve L2 English adult students regarding a phonics-based literacy program in which they were enrolled, presumably in a university-based language school. Over four months, the students, all illiterate in their L1, used their smartphones to access a social networking app (WhatsApp) that served as the main platform for course worksheets, audios, and links to videos. Student feedback from post-treatment interviews on the literacy strategies implemented via WhatsApp was 100% positive. Likewise, all students responded positively about enjoying the activities, and thought they were useful and corresponded to what they wanted to learn.

Rahimi, M., & Miri, S. (2014). The impact of mobile dictionary use on language learning. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98, 1469-1474.

This paper reports on the effect of the use of a mobile phone-based dictionary (Longman Mobile) on the language performance of Iranian lower-intermediate English L2 university students. Over a period of a semester, 17 participants completed course assignments using their mobile dictionaries whereas a control group of 17 did so using the printed version of the same dictionary. The experimental group outperformed the control by a significant margin on an end-of-semester achievement test.

Rahimi, E., & Oveisi, N. (2020). The impact of mobile teaching on learning and retention of nursing students in teaching English. Future of Medical Education Journal, 10(1), 8-12.

This Iranian study describes, in minimal detail, the effects of a researcher-created mobile version of the unspecified L2 English content from the course textbook of nursing students of unspecified English competence level. Using unspecified mobile devices, the app was trialed by 15 participants during five half-hour sessions following unspecified procedures. A control group of 15 did likewise studying the same material following an unspecified conventional method. The experimental group significantly outperformed the control on a pre-/post-test comparison as well as on a two-week delayed post-test.

Rahimi, M., & Soleymani, E. (2015). The impact of mobile learning on listening anxiety and listening comprehension. English Language Teaching, 8(10), 152.

This Iranian study investigated the effect mobile device usage upon L2 English listening anxiety and comprehension. During a semester, 25 intermediate-level learners listened to 12 podcast activities on their mobile phones or MP3 players whereas a control group of 25 did so using desktop computers. Pre-treatment and post-treatment, listening anxiety was assessed by a questionnaire while listening comprehension was evaluated by the Key English Test. A significant difference in favor of the experimental group was found for both a reduction of listening anxiety and increase in listening comprehension.

Rahmah, R. (2018). Sharing photographs on Instagram boosts students’ self-confidence in speaking English. Pedagogy Journal of English Language Teaching, 6(2), 148-158.

This Indonesian study describes the effect of a social media app (Instagram) upon the L2 English speaking confidence of 87 Islamic Institute students in an English teacher preparation course. On a weekly basis over 14 weeks, participants of unspecified English competence level were required to conduct a simulated English class. This was peer reviewed by classmates, with comments, corrections and suggestions written on a class whiteboard. Presumably using their smartphones, students photographed this written feedback and sent it out as an Instagram posting. Participants agreed that this use of the app helped them increase their confidence in speaking English.

Rahmani, A., Asadi, V., & Xodabande, I. (2022). Using mobile devices for vocabulary learning outside the classroom: Improving the English as foreign language learners' knowledge of high-frequency words. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1-7.

This Iranian study evaluated the effect of the supplementary usage of a mobile-accessible flashcard vocabulary app (New General Service List) upon the vocabulary acquisition of B1-level L2 English language institute students. Over three months, 27 participants used the app out of class to learn high frequency words. A matched control group of 17 received the same classroom instruction without use of the app. The experimental group significantly outperformed the control on a pre-/post-treatment vocabulary test comparison as well as on a three-month-delayed post-test.

Raj, A., & Tomy, P. (2023). Mobile technology as a dependable alternative to language labs and to improve listening skills. International Journal of English Language and Literature Studies, 12(1), 17-32.

This Indian study comprehensively evaluated 46 mobile-accessible L2 English listening apps, of which 15 were shortlisted for use with students of unspecified English competence level at an institute of technology. Over an unspecified duration, 61 participants used unspecified apps, presumably via mobile phones, to practice their listening comprehension. During the same time a group of 60 students followed an unspecified curriculum without the use of any MALL support. The experimental group significantly outscored the control in a pre-/post-treatment listening test comparison.

Rajayi, S., & Poorahmadi, M. (2017). The impact of teaching vocabulary through “Kik” application on improving intermediate EFL learner’s vocabulary learning. International Journal of English Language Teaching, 5(1), 22-28.

This Iranian study investigated the effect of using a mobile phone-accessible messaging app (Kik) upon the vocabulary acquisition of 31 intermediate-level L2 English language institute students. During twelve class sessions of 15-20 minutes duration, participants used the app to complete word definition and matching activities with five-six words per session. A matched control group of 30 did similar tasks in class without the use of the app. The experimental group significantly outscored the control on a pre-/post-treatment multiple-choice vocabulary test.

Rakhmawati, I. (2020). Promoting autonomous learning through mobile applications in a blended English language classroom. International Conference on English Language Teaching2019 (pp. 97-101). Atlantis Press.

This Indonesian study describes the effects of using a variety of smartphone-accessible apps upon the L2 English writing of 21 university students of unspecified competence level. During a semester, compositions of unspecified topics were written individually using Google Docs supported by collaborative corrective peer feedback via Schoology and WhatsApp. It was found that learners were more communicative, independent and confident in composing their writing. Students were more engaged in writing activities using mobile applications and more autonomous and responsible for task completion, and this despite problems encountered in obtaining and maintaining Internet connections.

Ramos, L., & Valderruten, A. (2017). Development of listening and linguistic skills through the use of a mobile application. Canadian Center of Science and Education. English Language Teaching, 10(9), 95-107.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a locally produced game-based mobile tutorial app upon the vocabulary, grammar, and listening improvement of 53 A1-level L2 English students in a Columbian language institute. Neither the game contents nor procedures of the treatment are specified. Participants played the game during a semester. On a pre-/post-test comparison, the experimental group outperformed a control group of 60 that did not use the app.

Rapti, D., Gerogiannis, D., & Soulis, S. G. (2022). The effectiveness of Augmented Reality for English vocabulary instruction of Greek students with intellectual disability. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 1-18.

This Greek study evaluated the effectiveness of a mobile-based Augmented Reality app (EduAr) on the acquisition of basic L2 English vocabulary by three intellectually disabled primary school students. Participants were first taught 20 words (10 food/10 animal) using only large font printed cards and tested to obtain a baseline score. Then, twice per week for five weeks, they were taught the same words two per session using EduAr on a tablet computer. Compared to the initial baseline tests, all three students improved their vocabulary acquisition with a substantial effect size after receiving the augmented reality intervention.

Rashid, S. (2018). The Effect of Training in Mobile Assisted Language Learning on Attitude, Beliefs and Practices of Tertiary Students in Pakistan. PhD dissertation, University of Canterbury.

This New Zealand PhD describes a program designed to train 23 L2 English university students in Pakistan how to use MALL resources. Eight weeks of technical, pedagogical and strategic training were provided through a course blog (A Short Training Course in Mobile Assisted Language Learning) that focused on extensive practice of English writing skills using smartphones outside the classroom. After the training, the students showed an increased use of smartphones for practicing English writing skills on their blogs and all students reported a perceived improvement in their English writing skills.

Rashid, S., Cunningham, U., & Watson, K. (2017). Task-based language teaching with smartphones: A case study in Pakistan. Teachers and Curriculum, 17(2), 33-40.

This paper describes a task-based experiment in which eleven L2 English Pakistani university volunteers of unspecified English competency level used their smartphones to create a personal blog. Over five-weeks, the students wrote at least three entries on their phones which they then published to the blog website.  According to post-treatment questionnaires and interviews, students’ and teachers’ perceptions regarding the use of smartphones in this way was positive. The findings confirmed that a combination of smartphones and a task-based learning approach could have a beneficial impact on students’ motivation and engagement with the learning process.

Rashid, S., Howard, J., Cunningham, U., & Watson, K. (2020). Learner training in MALL: A Pakistani case study. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, xx, 1-14.

This paper is the published version of Rashid (2018) with a bit more detail about the participants and blog activity. Specifically, the 23 university students are identified as being beginner-high/intermediate-mid-level L2 English learners. Using their smartphones, they accessed the Blogger app to create five blogs averaging about 250 words each. The study found the learner-training model used was successful in motivating and enabling the students to create blogs and practice their English writing skills.

Rashtchi, M., & Mazraehno, M. (2019). Exploring Iranian EFL learners’ listening skills via TED Talks: Does medium make a difference?  Journal of Language and Education, 5(4), 81-97.

This Iranian month-long study compared the effect of delivery mode on the intermediate-level L2 English listening comprehension of L1 Persian language institute students. Two groups of 20 viewed Ted Talk videos (American File 2), one using mobile phones out of class, and the other with laptops in class three times per week for ten sessions. The instructor played textbook-related CDs and DVDs thrice weekly in class for a control group of 20. On a listening post-test, although the mobile group outscored the control, there was no significant difference between the groups.

Rassaei, E. (2019). Recasts during mobile-mediated audio and video interactions: Learners’ responses, their interpretations, and the development of English articles. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35(1-2), 114-140.

This Iranian study investigated the effects of recasts on the development of English article usage during mobile-mediated interactions. During five treatment sessions over ten days, intermediate-level L2 English university students performed several online communicative tasks with their instructor via their smartphones, 36 in audio mode and 34 video mode. Half of each group received corrective recasts from their interlocutor in the same mode used by the student and half received no corrective recasts.  On a post-test comparison, students who received corrective recasts significantly outperformed those who didn’t. Audio-based recasts proved to be more effective than recasts delivered during video interactions.

Rassaei, E. (2020). Effects of mobile-mediated dynamic and nondynamic glosses on L2 vocabulary learning: A sociocultural perspective. Modern Language Journal, 104(1), 284-303.

This Iranian study assessed vocabulary acquisition using smartphones and a mobile-accessible messaging app (Telegram) to send short English texts and word definitions to adult language school students of intermediate-level L2 English proficiency. Each text contained a small number of underlined words, for which 32 participants communicated with an interlocutor to give or request Persian translations. The response was given to half the group interactively by prompts and increasingly explicit definitions. The other half immediately received explicit definitions. A control group of 15 read the same texts without recourse to any definitions. On both an immediate and two-week-delayed post-treatment vocabulary test, the groups that received definitions significantly outscored the control, the interactive participants more so than the immediate response group. 

Rassaei, E. (2023). Implementing mobile-mediated dynamic assessment for teaching request forms to EFL learners. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36(3), 257-287.

This Iranian study investigated the use of a mobile-accessible social networking app (WhatsApp) to teach request forms to intermediate-level L2 English learners. L1 Farsi language institute students accessed the app three times per week over two weeks. Using their smartphones, participants received scenario descriptions requiring them to make a polite request. For 16 participants, incorrect responses were treated through dynamic assessment (DA) methods, i.e., increasingly explicit feedback. Another 16 received immediate explicit corrections and 16 received no corrective feedback. The DA group obtained the best results on a pre-/post-/two-week-delayed post-test.

Rassaei, E. (2024). Recasts, foreign language anxiety and L2 development during online mobile-mediated interaction. Language Teaching Research, xx, 1-26.

This study evaluated the effect of recasts upon correct definite/indefinite L2 English article usage with B2-level female language institute students in Oman. In four sessions over eight days, participants used their smartphones to listen to audio recorded short stories via an instant messaging app (WhatsApp). They then retold the stories in their own words. For an experimental group of 22, the instructor provided immediate corrective oral feedback in the form of recasts for article errors. A control group of 19 received no article error corrective feedback. The experimental group significantly outscored the control on a pre-/post-test/ten-day delayed-post-test comparison.

Rastegar, B. (2019). The effect of real-life online discussions on content-based vocabulary learning of Iranian IELTS test takers: With a focus on Telegram application. Sapiens Journal of Modern Education, 2(1), 5-17.

This Iranian study investigated the effect of a mobile-accessible instant messaging app (Telegram) upon the advanced-level L2 English vocabulary acquisition of 29 adults in an IELTS preparation course. Over sixteen sessions, participants used the app to discuss real-life topics involving problems which they had to collaboratively resolve. Interactions were of 3 types: audio, written, and video. A matched control group of 28 received only classroom instruction. The experimental group significantly outperformed the control on a pre-/post-treatment 30-item vocabulary test. Overall, learners found online discussions an effective way to learn vocabulary.

Rathakrishnan, M., Raman, A., Singh, M., & Kaur, Y. (2019). The usage of WIM to enhance the acquisition of English. Opcion, 35, 12-45.

This Malaysian study evaluates the effect of social networking app (WhatsApp) usage upon the English grammar and writing skills of 40 high school students of unspecified L2 English competence level. Over three months, participants used their smartphones to undertake course-related activities via WhatsApp. What these were is not described. A control group of 40 students followed a traditional curriculum, again with no information given about content or procedures. The experimental group significantly outscored the control on a post-treatment test and expressed positive attitudes towards the use of WhatsApp, especially regarding the two-way communication it provided.

Ratnawati, R. (2024). Incorporating mobile platforms into self-regulated writing activities to promote students’ performance, writing quality, and perceptions. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 14(11), 1506-1515.

This Indonesian study describes the effect of using unspecified mobile devices to incorporate mobile platforms (notably Google Docs, Google Slides) into the L2 English self-regulated writing activities of university students with a low-to-high proficiency level. During eight meetings (both face-to-face and on-line) over an unspecified time period, 20 participants discussed, modeled, memorized and supported writing strategy relating to collaboratively written opinion essays. In a pre-/post-treatment writing comparison, the most significant improvements occurred in content and language use. Moderate effects were observed in the vocabulary and organization aspects of the essays. Students positively perceived implementing mobile platforms into their writing activities.

Rattanakhemakorn, J. (2023). Development of a mobile web application for learning Thai as a foreign language. Journal of Language and Communication, 10(1), 129-138.

This study describes the reactions of 22 international students to their use of a mobile-based beginner-level L2 Thai app (Let’s Learn Thai) at a college in Thailand. The app consisted of six researcher-created lessons of unspecified content designed to support weekly class lessons. Each unit was presented with vocabulary first followed by phrases and exercises. Participants accessed the app during a six-week treatment period, presumably using their personal mobile phones. According to a post-treatment questionnaire, participants had positive attitudes towards the app. Moreover, all agreed that the content of the Thai lessons was useful and practical for their daily lives.

Raymond, R. (2012). The Impact of E-Readers on Adolescent Students’ Reading Motivation: A Case Study. PhD dissertation, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX.

This American PHD dissertation presents a case study into the effects of using Kindle Keyboard e-readers upon the reading motivation of five 7th-8th-graders. Participants represented a range of profiles: an avid reader, a student with dyslexia, two ESL students, and a reluctant reader. They met the researcher as a group 30 minutes per week for seven weeks to discuss books they had chosen. At the end of the study, all five believed that the Kindle was easier to read than a printed book and made them want to read more.

Razaq, Y., Idman, M., Khair, U., & Firmah, A. (2022). Mobile smartphone in foreign language teaching: Apps for teaching students’ vocabulary. Indonesian Journal of Research and Educational Review, 1(3), 407-414.

This Indonesian study evaluates the effect of an L2 English language app (Learn and Play English) upon the vocabulary acquisition of 34 high school students of unspecified English competence level. Participants used their personal smartphones to assess the app over an unspecified time period to study unspecified content following unspecified procedures. A pre-/post-test comparison demonstrated significant improvement.

Read, T., & Bárcena, E. (2016). The development of listening comprehension via mobile-based social media and the role of e-leading students. In A. Palalas & M. Ally, International Handbook of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning. China Central Radio & TV University Press, Co., Ltd. (pp. 290-315).

This paper reports the same data as presented in Read & Kukulska-Hulme, (2015).

Read, T., & Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2015). The role of a mobile app for listening comprehension training in distance learning to sustain student motivation. Journal of Universal Computer Science, 21(10), 1327-1338.

This study examined the effects of social media interaction upon the English listening comprehension activities of 90 volunteers, of unspecified L2 English competence level, enrolled in a Spanish distance education pre-university entrance course. For ten weeks, half the group used a mobile-based app (Audio News Trainer) to listen to news broadcasts and automatically send written summaries to a Facebook page for peer comments.  The other half of the group used the app without the social networking link. Only 9 of the latter group actually used the application compared to 33 in the Facebook group

Read, T., Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Barcena, E. (2021). Supporting listening comprehension by social network-based interaction in mobile assisted language learning. Porta Linguarum Revista Interuniversitaria De Didáctica De Las Lenguas Extranjeras, 35, 295-309.

This study evaluated the effect of a mobile-linked social networking app (Facebook) upon the use of a listening comprehension app (Audio News Trainer) by A2-C1-level L2 English learners enrolled in a Spanish distance education university. For ten weeks, 45 participants accessed the app on its own with no Facebook support. A matched group of 45 used the app with a Facebook link that enabled them to summarize, share and discuss the recordings. Compared to the non-Facebook group, four-times more Facebook group participants listened to five times as many recordings.

Redondo, B., Cózar-Gutiérrez, R., González-Calero, J., & Ruiz, R. (2020). Integration of Augmented Reality in the teaching of English as a foreign language in early childhood education. Early Childhood Education Journal, 48(2), 147-155.

This study investigated the effect of a mobile-based augmented-reality app upon the L2 English vocabulary learning of early education children (3-5 years old) in Spain. Over three 45-minute sessions, 52 participants opened envelops with 3D images of animals and summer-related objects, the names of which they visualized and learned using an AR application via a tablet. A control group of 50 viewed the same images using stickers and pop-outs. The results showed a greater significant improvement in motivation, learning and socio-affective relationships in the experimental group compared to the control.

Reed, J., & Hooper, D. (2018). Student perceptions of mobile learning of high frequency vocabulary using the "Memrise" app. The Journal of Kanda University of International Studies. 30, 351-371.

This Japanese study describes student perceptions of a mobile-based flashcard app (Memrise) for the learning of English vocabulary. Over 16 weeks, on a weekly basis, L1 Japanese university students voluntarily accessed Memrise via their iPads out of class to learn high frequency vocabulary from a NGSL wordlist. Thirteen mid-level L2 English participants did so with English definitions and fourteen low-level L2 English participants with Japanese translations. While a majority of the participants in both study conditions felt that their vocabulary improved, a greater number of participants manifested a “negative affect” in the English-English group than the English-Japanese group.

Refat, N., Kassim, H., Rahman, M., & Razali, R. (2020). Measuring student motivation on the use of a mobile assisted grammar learning tool. PloS ONE, 15(8), 1-20.

This Malaysian study investigated the effect of a mobile-accessible app upon the L2 English learning motivation and acquisition of grammatical tense. In four one-hour sessions conducted in a computer lab, using PCs and personal smartphones, 115 university students learned present tenses. In a post-treatment questionnaire and interviews, students found usage of the app to be motivating, but few students replied that the tool helped them to know more about the present tense than they would have otherwise done. A pre-/post-test of present tense demonstrated significant learning gains.

Refat, N., Rahman, M., TaufiqAsyhari, A., …, & Rahman, M. (2020). MATT: A mobile-assisted tense tool for flexible m-grammar learning based on cloud-fog-edge collaborative networking. IEEE Access 8, 66074-66084.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a mobile-based grammar app (MATTMobile Assisted Tense Tool) in teaching English tense usage to 103 Malaysian university students of unspecified L2 English competence level. The app was used over an unspecified period of time under unspecified conditions. In a pre-/post-test comparison, participants made a statistically significant improvement. They likewise outscored on the post-test a control group of 25 that did not use the app. The experimental group also expressed very positive attitudes towards their use of the app.

Regan, K., Evmenova, A. & Good, K., ..., & Mastropieri, M. (2018). Persuasive writing with mobile-based graphic organizers in inclusive classrooms across the curriculum. Journal of Special Education Technology, 33(1), 3-14.

This American study describes the effect of an iPad-based mobile graphic organizer app (MBGO) upon the writing of seventh-graders that included L1/L2 English speakers and children with and without disabilities. Over two weeks, in eight sessions, 43 participants practiced writing persuasive essays using the MBGO and 51 without the app. On an immediate post-test, while there was no significant difference in the number of words or sentences, regardless of disabilities, students who used the MBGO significantly outperformed students in the control group for number of transition words and writing quality.

Reinders, H., & Cho, M-Y. (2010a). Extensive listening practice and input enhancement using mobile phones: Encouraging out-of-class learning with mobile phones. TESL-EJ, 14(2), n.p.

This Korean study reports on the use of a mobile phone-based audiobook (Peaks and Valleys) to provide extensive out-of-class L2 English listening practice. The application slightly raised the volume to highlight certain adverbial and passive constructions. The system was trialed for a week by 68 university students of unspecified L2 English competence level.  Most of them were enthusiastic about using mobile phones for learning. Some, however, found the volume changes distracting and a number did not complete the reading assignment.

Reinders, H. & Cho, M-Y. (2010b). Enhancing informal language learning with mobile technology - Does it work? Journal of Second Language Teaching and Research, 1(1), 3-29.

This study of 16 advanced-level (90-116 TOEFLiBT) L2 English Korean university students examined the effect of moble phone-based audio enhancement upon grammar acquisition. For a week, out of class, the students listened to an audiobook (Peaks and Valleys) within which the volume of certain adverbial and passive constructions was augmented by 20-30%. A matched control group of 67 listened to the audiobook without audio enhancement. A timed pre-/post-test involving grammaticality judgements of 60 sentences showed no significant difference in mean scores between the two groups for either adverbs or passives.

Reinders, H., Lakarnchua, O., & Pegrum, M. (2014). A trade-off in learning: Mobile Augmented Reality for language learning. In M. Thomas & H. Reinders (Eds.), Task-Based Language Teaching in Asia (pp. 244-256). London, Bloomsbury.

This Thai paper describes the use of a mobile phone-based Augmented Reality app (Wikitude) to foster the English proficiency of 34 university students of unspecified L2 English competence level. Participants had to create a campus tour for foreign visitors using prompts about five campus locations. This took students about 2 and a half hours to complete, during which students enthusiastically helped each other respond to the prompts. Participants were then supposed to take a tour created by their classmates. Due especially to technical problems, this activity saw a marked reduction in the enthusiasm of students.

Repetto, C., Di Natale, A., Villani, D., …, & Riva, G. (2021). The use of immersive 360° videos for foreign language learning: A study on usage and efficacy among high-school students.  Interactive Learning Environments, xx, 1-22.

This Italian study evaluated the effect of viewing immersive 360° videos compared to normal 2D videos on the L2 English vocabulary acquisition of 11th-grade technical institute students of B1-level English competence level. During two class sessions, using smartphones in cardboard frames, 63 participants viewed ten (30-180 second) 360° videos including audio descriptions, mainly of natural landscapes. Meanwhile, 41 participants viewed the same audio-enhanced videos in 2D format with unaltered smartphones. The audio track of the videos targeted 148 B1-B2-level words. On a pre-/post-test comparison, the 360° video viewers learned one and a half times more vocabulary than the control group.

Retnomurti, A., Hendrawaty, N., & Tiwiyanti, L. (2019). Development of Android-based Protadroid application in pronunciation practice learning for undergraduate students. English Review: Journal of English Education, 7(2), 67-76.  Obj

This Indonesian study describes the development and evaluation of an Android-based English pronunciation app (Protadroid) that notably used non-native speakers as pronunciation models. The app was trialed over an unspecified period by thirty university students of unspecified L2 English competency level. Using smartphones, participants assessed the app relative to four parameters: satisfaction, interest, attention, involvement. Satisfaction (93%), interest (88.2%) and involvement (85%) scored very highly. The results for attention were less positive (76%) but still quite high.

Reynolds, E., & Taylor, B. (2020). Kahoot!: EFL instructors’ implementation experiences and impacts on students’ vocabulary knowledge. CALL-EJ, 21(2), 70-92.

This Korean study investigated the effect of a mobile game-based student response system (Kahoot!) upon the English vocabulary acquisition of university students of unspecified L2 English competence level. Over ten weeks, 11 participants used the system once per week in class to learn new vocabulary. Following the same schedule, a control group of 13 did likewise without using Kahoot! While the experimental group showed a marked increase in vocabulary knowledge, the differences failed to be statistically significant. Instructors agreed that Kahoot! had a positive impact, to a greater or lesser extent, with respect to all of the system evaluation criteria.

Rezaee, A., Alavi, S., & Razzaghifard, P. (2019). The impact of mobile-based dynamic assessment on improving EFL oral accuracy. Education and Information Technologies, 24(5), 3091-3105.

This Iranian study assessed the effect of dynamic assessment on oral accuracy in a mobile environment. Over four weeks, using their smartphones twice per week out of class, 80 pre-intermediate-level L2 English university students took part in eight communicative tasks via a social networking app (WhatsApp), half doing so orally and half by text. A control group of 40 students received normal instruction with no WhatsApp activities or related dynamic assessment.  Both WhatsApp groups outperformed the control on a post-treatment speaking test, with the texting participants doing the best.

Rezaee, A., Alavi, S., & Razzaghifard, P. (2020). Mobile-based dynamic assessment and the development of EFL students' oral fluency. International Journal of Mobile Learning Organisation Education, 14(4), 511-532.

This Iranian study evaluated the effect of dynamic correction on the L2 English oral fluency of low-intermediate level university students. Over four weeks, twice per week, 80 students completed oral communication tasks on their mobile phones via WhatsApp, which their instructor corrected in real time. Half the group received corrections by text-chat and half by voice-chat. A control group of 40 completed the same communicative tasks without any corrective feedback. A pre/post-test assessed oral fluency based on speech rate, pause length, number of repetitions, and reformulations. The two experimental groups significantly outperformed the control on all four assessed parameters.

Rezaei, A., Mai, N., & Pesaranghader, A. (2013). Effectiveness of using English vocabulary mobile applications on ESL's learning performance. Proceedings 2013 International Conference on Informatics and Creative Multimedia (pp. 114-118).  [Same as Rezaei, Mai & Pesaranghader 2014]

This Malaysian study investigated the effect of using mobile-based vocabulary apps on the vocabulary acquisition of 42 intermediate-level L2 English students of an English Language Academy. The students used the apps during a “Vocabulary and Talk” course in English for academic purposes. A pre-/post-test comparison based on a 20-item multiple-choice assessment revealed a positive change in learners’ performance. In a post-treatment questionnaire, students indicated that using the applications helped increase learning of vocabulary, confidence, class participation and that they had a positive tendency toward the use of multimedia in education.

Rezaei, A., Mai, N., & Pesaranghader, A. (2014). The effect of mobile applications on English vocabulary acquisition. Jurnal Teknologi, 68(2), 73-83.

This Malaysian article, the published version of Rezaei, Mai & Pesaranghader (2013), investigated the effectiveness of two mobile apps, Busuu and Interactive English, on the L2 English vocabulary acquisition of 42 mostly pre-intermediate level English Language Academy students. Participants completed assigned exercises in both apps which they accessed in class and at home over a four-week period. A comparison of two twenty-item multiple-choice assessments, a pre-test based on the course textbook and a post-test on the content of the apps, confirmed a significant increase in vocabulary knowledge in the latter.

Rezaei, M., & Davoudi, M. (2016). The influence of electronic dictionaries on vocabulary knowledge extension. Journal of Education and Learning, 5(3), 139-148.

This Iranian paper investigated the effectiveness of e-dictionaries compared to paper dictionaries in the learning of vocabulary. Over eight twice-weekly sessions, 35 intermediate-level L2 English university students used eight mobile-based dictionaries (from Blue Dict) to read 30 texts. A matched control group of 35 students did likewise using paper dictionaries. Post-treatment, students immediately took a 60-item multiple-choice vocabulary test and the same test again two weeks later. The experimental group significantly outscored the control on both post-tests. There were no significant differences between male and female participants on the delayed-post-test.

Rico, M., Agudo, J., & Sánchez, H. (2015). Language learning through handheld gaming: A case study of an English course with engineering students. Journal of Universal Computer Science, 21(10), 1362-1378.

This Spanish paper describes the results of two case studies conducted over three academic years that explored the use of the Nintendo game-based Practise English application with A2+/B1 level university L2 English learners. Practise English provided almost 400 exercises that included songs, tongue twisters and revision covering exercises previously completed incorrectly, which students accessed on a voluntary basis outside of class. The first case study, which involved 18 participants who used the application two hours per week for 15 weeks, focused on student perceptions of motivation, attitude, and pedagogical effectiveness. The great majority of participants enjoyed using the application and found it most effective for pronunciation and listening practice. The second case study involved 38 participants, who accessed the application on average 20 minutes per session ten times over a six-week period.  A pre-/post-test of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, reading abilities, writing, listening and speaking demonstrated that students who spent nine or more sessions playing Practise English could improve some of their English skills. The degree of improvement was related to the amount of time actively spent using the application.

Rico, M., Naranjo, M., Delicado Puerto, G., & Domínguez-Gómez, E. (2014). Let's Move: Mobile learning for motivation in language acquisition. In Pixel (Ed.), ICT for Language Learning, 7th Conference Edition (np). Padova: Webstersrl.

This Spanish study describes the use of an Android-based L2 English learning app (Taplingua) by some 60 university students of unspecified English competence level. Taplingua uses practical situations, video explanations and interactive games to teach English at the A2/B1 level. Over eight weeks, participants accessed the app on a voluntarily basis via their mobile phones to study whatever they wanted as frequently as they liked. It is claimed that use of the app resulted in higher engagement and learning outcomes. However, only the rate of app usage is reported and there is no pre-/post-treatment data to support learning outcome claims.

Rico García, M, & Agudo Garzón, J. (2016). Aprendizaje móvil de inglés mediante juegos de espías en educación secundaria (Mobile learning of English through spy games in secondary education). Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia, 19 (1), 121-139. [in Spanish]

This study investigated the perception of 61 A1/A2-level L2 English high school students in Spain regarding the use of interactive spy video games (ISPY) for language learning through mobile devices. In one 50-minute session, pairs of students used tablets to play six different games which involved reading, listening, vocabulary, pronunciation and cultural information. According to the results of a pre-treatment/post-treatment questionnaire, a general improvement was observed in the expectations participants had about these language learning resources, the implicit cultural training and reading comprehension being considered what yielded the best results.

Rinaepi, Triwardani, H., & Azi, R. (2022). The effectiveness of ELSA Speak application to improve pronunciation ability. Jurnal Fakultas Keguruan & Ilmu Pendidikan, 3(1), 28-33.

This presumably Indonesian study describes the effect of an L2 English speaking app (ELSASpeak) upon the listening comprehension of eleven grade-eleven high school students of unspecified English competence level. Over an unspecified treatment duration/frequency, participants used their smartphones to access unspecified materials following unspecified procedures. A pre-/post-test comparison demonstrated significant improvement in listening comprehension results. Use of the app was also observed to increase student learning motivation.

Rivera, C., Mason, L., Moser, J., & Ahlgrim-Delzell, L. (2014). The effects of an iPad® multimedia shared story intervention on vocabulary acquisition for an English language learner. Journal of Special Education Technology, 29(4), 31-48.

This American study describes a case study involving the L1 Spanish/L2 English vocabulary acquisition of one ten-year old elementary school student with a moderate intellectual disability. Over four weeks, an iPad was used to present two personalized iBook stories, in both a Spanish and English version. The stories contained 50 noun pictures, ten of which the participant did not know in either Spanish or English. The student initially acquired Spanish vocabulary words more quickly, but his English vocabulary words accelerated at a faster rate over the course of the investigation.

Rivers. D. (2009). Utilizing the Quick Response (QR) code within a Japanese EFL Environment. The JALT CALL Journal, 5(2), 15-28.

This Japanese study evaluated the perceptions of 132 university students, of unspecified L2 English competence level, regarding the use of mobile phones and QR codes.  Three speaking and reading activities were undertaken which involved the writing of opinion paragraphs, a teamwork task, and a collaborative treasure hunt concerning different locations around the university campus. While over half the students expressed positive Attitudes towards the use of mobile phone-based QR decoding to help language learning and wanted to use QR codes as a regular part of the curriculum, the sizable remainder were negative about both.

Rizqiyyah, N. (2020). EFL students’ attitudes towards autonomous learning through Busuu: A mobile application. English Education: Jurnal Tadris Bahasa Inggris, 13(2), 2020, 118-135.

This study investigated the perceptions of 20 Indonesian university students regarding autonomous L2 English learning using a mobile-based learning app (Busuu). Participants, whose self-assessed L2 English competence varied between A1-C2, accessed the app for seven days when and where they wanted. The lower the level of English competence, the longer students spent their time accessing the app. According to student questionnaire responses and interviews, use of Busuu supported learners’ autonomy. Students had a positive attitude towards the app and thought it helped them enhance their English proficiency skills, especially vocabulary enrichment.

Robertson, L, O’Connor, G., Holdsworth, R., & Mitchell, C. (2009). MALL research project report. Mobile Application for Language Learning (pp. 1-48). The Learning Federation. Adelaide, South Australia, Australia: Curriculum Corporation. 

This Australian report describes a six-week pilot test of the commercial mobile phone-based Learnosity language learning system completed by 95 L2 Indonesian post-primary school students of unspecified L2 Indonesian competence level. The project involved students viewing stimulus materials (photographs, a map, a menu, a travel brochure), listening via a mobile phone to questions in Indonesian about those materials, and recording their oral responses in Indonesian. A pre-/post-test of conversational skills demonstrated significant improvement. Although, teachers strongly supported use of the system, nearly half the students indicated they would only like to use it occasionally and 25% never.

Robles Noriega, H. (2016). Mobile learning to improve writing in ESL teaching. TEFLIN Journal, 27(2), 182-202.

This Columbian case study involved one B1-level L2 English university student who accessed, via a loaned mobile device, podcasts designed to teach writing skills. These were based on a genre approach inspired by a Functional Systemic Linguistic analysis and targeted three genres: personal recounts, autobiography and short story. A pre-/post-treatment comparison after eight weeks focused on genre structure, text cohesion, and grammar. It showed that the texts produced by the student improved in use of the language as well as in the organization of the stages of the genre structure.

Rocca, S. (2015). iPadding sixth graders to impact language learning: An empirical mobile study. The International Association for Language Learning Technology Journal, 45(1), 23-43.

This American paper describes a one-year experiment that integrated the use of iPads and the Notability app into the curriculum of a beginning-level L2 Italian class of bilingual French-English sixth-graders. Compared to a control group of 8 learners who shared the same teacher, curriculum, textbook and class time, an experimental group of 14 did all their work using iPads. On an end-of-year test, the experimental group scored the same as the control in writing but performed better in listening, speaking and reading. So, too, they outperformed seventh graders in speaking.

Rocca, S. (2017). To iPad or not to iPad: Mobile language learning with middle-school children. The IALLT Journal, 47(1), 1-26.

This American paper is a follow-up study of Rocca (2015). It involved the same group of bilingual French-English middle school beginning-level L2 Italian learners who shared the same curriculum, teacher and class time. Fourteen of the children studied using the Notability app on their iPads whereas eight had no access to either. While both groups made progress over the two-year period in reading, writing, speaking and listening on A1-level CILS end-of-year examinations, the experimental group performed better and at a higher level than the control group across all skills.

Rodrigo, M., Agapito, J., & Manahan, D. (2019). Analysis of student affect and behavior while playing a mobile game for English comprehension. In M. Chang, et al. (Eds.), Proceedings ICCE 2019 - 27th International Conference on Computers in Education, 1 (pp. 537-542). Taiwan: Asia-Pacific Society for Computers in Education.

This conference presentation describes the design of a mobile-based L2 English reading and listening comprehension game (Learning Likha) that was trialed with thirty 4th-6th-graders in the Philippines. For twenty minutes, the children played the interactive storybook game which required them to fetch indigenous Filipino musical instruments from different shops in the town. Despite the high level of engagement and on-task behavior, and despite the positive feedback about the game, comprehension scores were low, though the older students understood more than the younger ones.

Rodriguez, L., & Shepard, M. (2013). Adult English language learners’ perceptions of audience response systems (clickers) as communication aides: A Q-methodology study. TESOL Journal, 4(1), 182-193.

This American study investigated the perceptions of beginning/intermediate-level L2 English learners regarding the use of an Audience Response System (i.e., clickers). Over six weeks, 15 L1 Spanish adults in an English Language Learner basic technology skills course used an ARS to respond to their instructor’s questions regarding course content. At other times, they were instructed to respond with hand raising, hand signs, or by raising paper cards with letters or numbers written on them. According to a post-treatment questionnaire, participants indicated that they enjoyed using clickers over other response methods.

Romero, C. (2019). Evaluating a holographic mobile-based application for teaching basic oral English vocabulary to Spanish speaking children. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, xx, np.

This Spanish study describes the development and evaluation of a locally produced mobile-based app for teaching 20 basic L2 English words to L1 Spanish pre-school children. The app was trialed for three weeks by 23 participants with access to a virtual holographic teacher and 23 with the same teacher appearing as a smartphone image. A control group of 24 learned the same vocabulary through book and blackboard images presented by a real teacher. On a pre-/post-test comparison, both experimental groups significantly outperformed the control, but the hologram users more so than those who used the app without the holographic teacher.

Rong, X. (2022). Mobile assisted vocabulary learning with Chinese EFL learners: Effectiveness and evaluation. Journal of Higher Education Research, 3(2), 128-130.

This Chinese study evaluated the effect of a mobile-accessible L2 English reading app (Fluent Reading) upon the vocabulary acquisition of four intermediate-level L2 English university students. Using unspecified mobile devices, for thirty days participants accessed the app on a daily basis for an unspecified time period to read unspecified materials following unspecified procedures. The results of a post-treatment vocabulary test demonstrated significant improvement compared to those of an equivalent pre-test.

Roohani, A., & Vincheh, M. (2023). Effect of game-based, social media, and classroom-based instruction on the learning of phrasal verbs. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36(3), 375-399.

This Iranian study evaluated the vocabulary acquisition of B1-level L2 English adolescent language institute students, all L1 Iranian speakers. Over seven weeks, 30 minutes twice weekly, 100 participants learned 101 phrasal verbs out of class using their smartphones. Half did so via a game-based mobile vocabulary app (Phrasal Nerds) and half via Telegram messages. A matched control group of 50 learned the same vocabulary in class via traditional explanations and definitions. All groups significantly increased their pre-test scores on a post-test, but the game-based users more so than the others.

Ros i Solé, C., Calic, J., & Neijmann, D. (2010). A social and self-reflective approach to MALL. ReCALL, 22(1), 39­-52.

This British paper investigated over eight weeks how language learners related to mobile technologies on a personal and social level in their everyday lives. Use of MP3 devices was observed by having six L2 Icelandic and six L2 Serbian/Croatian university students, all of unspecified L2 competence level, log their use of the devices in a diary, by having the teacher observe or elicit information in classroom discussions and conducting ethnographic- style interviews. It was concluded that MP3 devices could allow students to adopt a social practices approach and use a variety of locations to enact and rehearse a personal voice.

Rosyid, A., & Hidayati, P. (2020). Teaching pronunciation through MALL: Promoting EFL learners’ pronunciation and their learning autonomy. np. Unpublished

This Indonesian study describes a program designed to improve the pronunciation of L2 English learners. Over an unspecified duration and frequency, 30 university students of unspecified English competence level used their mobile phones to access a mobile-based English pronunciation app (ELSA Speak) to practice segmental phonemes (consonants, vowels, diphthongs) and supra-segmentals (stress, intonation, linking sounds). The You-tube Video Caption feature was also used to give extra exposure for the students dealing with the words selected by the teacher. Although no statistical analysis is provided, it is claimed that ELSA Speak and Video Caption helped the students decrease their pronunciation problems.

Roussel, S., & Galan, J. (2018). Can clicker use support learning in a dual-focused second language German course? Language Learning & Technology, 22(3), 45-64.

This French study compared the acquisition of legal terminology and subject content with 36 B1/C1-level L2 German university students with and without the use of a student response system (i.e., clickers). Over ten weeks, two one-hour lectures per week, students attended law course that included in-class question sessions. These alternated between interactive clicker responses and traditional instructor/student oral interactions. A pre-/post-test comparison demonstrated higher scores with vocabulary and content learned through clicker usage than without, but significantly so only for legal terminology as opposed to course content.

Rozina, A., Shima, T., Shah, M., …, & Hafiza, A. (2017). Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) in developing second language learners' understanding of grammar. Journal of Academia UiTM Negeri Sembilan, 5, 187-208.

This ten-week Malaysian study investigated the effectiveness of a digital board game (Throw Back Time) upon the L2 English grammar proficiency of 47 university students. Out of class, participants played the game and undertook MALL lessons based on content extracted from the game. They attended a weekly 2-hour tutorial session in which they played the game. They took a two-hour grammar test of verbal tense and aspect every other week. Significant improvements were observed between a pre-test and three successive class tests, but not between the third and fourth test.

Ruan, G-L., & Wang, J. (2008). Design of English learning system based on mobile technology. Proceedings of International Conference on Computer Science and Software Engineering (pp. 1062-1065).Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society.

This Chinese paper describes a language learning system that incorporates three applications for L2 English learners. The first uses web-enabled mobile phones to provide speaking practice by having students record responses to question prompts. The second supports vocabulary learning by sending students a word or expression via SMS. Students then use these in class conversations or a web-based text chat application, which they access on class laptops. Students regarded the system very favorably: 78% thought that it had improved their speaking ability, 96% that its use was enjoyable and 92% that other students should have a chance to use it.

Ruge, B. (2012). Learning Greenlandic by SMS: The potentials of text messages support for second language learners in Greenland. In J. Díaz-Vera (Ed.), Left to my Own Devices: Learner Autonomy and Mobile-Assisted Language Learning Innovation and Leadership in English Language Teaching (pp. 197-212). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

This paper from Greenland describes the use of mobile phone SMS in the teaching of beginning-level L2 Greenlandic to language centre adult immigrants. The method consisted of daily language-based mini-tasks sent by SMS and carried out face-to-face in collaboration with local L1 Greenlandic mentors. For eight weeks, adult education students combined their SMS tasks with classroom instruction, web-based exercises, and video conferencing. The SMS-mentoring system helped overcome social and practical barriers that prevent learners from practicing the language.

Rusman, E., Ternier, S., & Specht, M. (2018). Early second language learning and adult involvement in a real-world context: Design and evaluation of the "ELENA Goes Shopping" mobile game. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 21(3), 90-103.

This Dutch study describes the field testing of an Android smartphone-based L2 German game-based language learning app (ELENA Goes Shopping) designed to support early language learning (pronunciation, vocabulary) by L1 Dutch 4-8-year-olds. The game, which was played on-site in a supermarket, requires participants to listen to instructions in German accompanied by images relating to ingredients they have to find to make pancakes. The game was trialed for about 25 minutes twice by 6-8-year-olds, first by a group of 8 randomly-selected children and 7 (grand)parents and a second time by 26 Scouts and 7 adult supervisors. Semi-structured interviews with the first group and questionnaires from the second revealed very positive reactions to playing the game from the children and adults alike. The second group also completed a ten-item pre-/post-treatment Dutch-German translation test which demonstrated a small (1.08) but significant mean score improvement. Some children could not recall words from the 10-word list, but could recall other German words that were activated by playing the game.

Ryu, M., & Han, S. (2016). 영어말하기능력신장을위한스마트앱개발 (Development of smart application for English speaking). Journal of The Korean Association of Information Education, 20(4), 367-374. [in Korean]

This Korean study describes the effectiveness of an Android smartphone-based researcher-created L2 English app intended to improve the English-speaking skills of elementary-level 4th-6th-grade children. The app, which incorporated test-to-speech and voice recognition technologies, engaged 82 learners in dialogue practice and problem-solving games. Participants used the app in class for individual practice of unspecified content for four months, twice per week. A pre-/post-test comparison demonstrated a significant improvement in speaking and listening comprehension for all three grades.  It was also discovered that learning using the English app increased interest, motivation, confidence and sense of challenge while decreasing anxiety.