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Laaribi, M. (2024). Mobile-Assisted Language Learning and advanced vocabulary acquisition: Promoting personalized learning. Ikhtilaf Journal of Critical Humanities and Social Studies, 2(1), 88-97.

This study evaluated the effect of personalization versus non-personalization upon the L2 English vocabulary acquisition of 30 young adult learners in Morocco. During one two-hour session, participants of unspecified English competence level used unspecified mobile devices and applications to learn 24 unspecified words under both conditions. The personalized treatment allowed students autonomy in choosing the nature, length, level, and wording of the learning task. In the non-personalized treatment, these features were determined in advance and students were systematically guided step-by-step. Personalization resulted in better vocabulary recall and higher levels of enjoyment, intrinsic motivation, and perceived sense of autonomy among participants.

Laasaki, F., Jokar, A. & Arablou, A. (2015). The viability of m-learning via SMS in vocabulary perception of Iranian EFL learners. Iranian EFL Journal, 11(1), 83-101.

This Iranian study compared the L2 English vocabulary perception of 66 language institute students under two conditions: SMS mobile (N=33) and paper delivery (N=33). What is meant by “vocabulary perception” is never explained. Neither is the L2 English competence of the participants or targeted vocabulary identified. Likewise, the instructional procedures followed are nowhere described nor the results of pre-testing reported. Notwithstanding, it is claimed that the results of a post-test indicated that the SMS scores’ mean was significantly higher than that of the paper delivery scores.

Laban, M. (2017). The Effectiveness of Using Mobile Learning in Developing Eleventh Graders’ English Grammar Learning and Motivation for English. MA thesis, The Islamic University–Gaza.

This study describes the effect of mobile app usage upon the English grammar learning of 35 high school students in Gaza. Participants were of unspecified L2 English competence level. While a group of 35 matched students in a control group studied grammar in class for a term with the same instructor, the experimental group did so entirely by means of the app, which provided explanations and quizzes. The experimental group significantly outscored the control on a post-treatment grammar test. Likewise, an assessment of post-treatment motivation demonstrated significantly higher levels for the experimental group than the control.

Laghari, Z., Kazi, H., & Ali Nizamani, M. (2017). Mobile learning application development for improvement of English listening comprehension in rural primary school students of grade 1, 2 and 3 of Pakistan. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications, 8(8), 229-337.

This Pakistani study evaluated a mobile-based app intended to improve the English listening ability of 30 third-grade rural students of unspecified L2 English competence level. In a two-hour daily after-school program that lasted 30 days, participants received one hour of traditional instruction and used the app via tablet computers for one hour on tasks that involved phonemic awareness, letter names, word spelling, object naming and reading comprehension. A control group of 15 matched students received only traditional instruction in these skills during each two-hour session. The experimental group obtained a significantly higher mean score on a post-test.

Lai, A. (2016). Mobile immersion: An experiment using mobile instant messenger to support second-language learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 24(2), 277-290.

This paper from Hong Kong describes a smartphone-based experiment that used a mobile messaging app (WhatsApp) to support L2 English vocabulary acquisition. Eight groups of three seventh grade L2 English learners of unspecified L2 English competence level were encouraged to use high frequency English verbs delivered to them daily five at a time for three months. A pre-/post recall vocabulary test revealed no significant difference compared to a matched control group of seven triads which did not participate in text chats. However, within the experimental group there was a significant correlation between chat frequency and vocabulary gain.

 [The author’s first name is different, but this is the published version of Lai, W-H (2014). = Arthur]

Lai, J., & Chang, L. (2021). Impacts of Augmented Reality apps on first graders’ motivation and performance in English vocabulary learning. SAGE Open, 11(4), 1-13.

This Taiwanese study evaluated the effect of an Augmented Reality (AR) app (Aurasma AR) upon the L2 English learning motivation and vocabulary acquisition of first-graders of unspecified English competence level. Over an unspecified time period/frequency, 23 participants accessed vocabulary cards via tablet computers with integrated links to unspecified AR media. A control group of 24 studied the same vocabulary cards without AR support following unspecified traditional methods. A pre-/post-treatment comparison demonstrated a significantly greater increase in learning motivation with the experimental group than with the control. However, there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups in test scores.

Lai, K., & Chen, H. (2021). A comparative study on the effects of a VR and PC visual novel game on vocabulary learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, xx, 1-34.

This Taiwanese study investigated the effect of a game-based app (Angels and Demigods) upon L2 English vocabulary learning. During one 50-minute session, 30 L1 Mandarin high school students of unspecified English proficiency level played the game, half on a PC and the other half in an immersive virtual reality environment (Oculus Go). The treatment included 20 words, which were pre-tested, immediately post-tested and delayed-post-test one week later by a translation and recognition activity. The virtual reality group significantly outscored the PC users on the post-treatment translation tests, but there was no significant difference on vocabulary recognition.

Lai, W-H. (2014). Using Mobile Instant Messenger (WhatsApp) to Support Second Language Learning. M.Ed., University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.

This MA thesis from Hong Kong investigated the effect of using WhatsApp as a text chat platform upon the L2 English vocabulary acquisition of seventh-grade L1 Chinese speakers of unspecified English language competence level. For three months, 45 students organized into groups of three attended weekly after-school L2 English game activity sessions. Using their own smartphones, eight of the groups also chatted freely in English on topics of their own choice. A pre-/post recall vocabulary test of frequently occurring verbs revealed no significant difference compared to the seven triads in the control group which did not participate in text chats. [= Lai A 2016]

Lakshmi, K., & Nageswari, R. (2014). Smart learning using smartphone: Current spell on language learning. Elixir Educational Technology, 68, 22218-22221.

This Indian study describes the effectiveness of three smartphone-based applications in improving the speaking proficiency of low ability L2 English university students. Over 30 hours an experimental group of 30 students engaged in group and paired speaking activities supported by the out-of-class use of the WhatsApp, WeChat, and Line apps. A control group of 30 did likewise without the benefit of the apps.  A comparison of pre-/post-tests demonstrated significant improvements in vocabulary, sentence structure, coherence and fluency within the experimental group, which also significantly outperformed the control on the post-test.

Lakshmi, K., & Nageswari, R. (2015). L2 Learners' achievement in acquiring academic vocabulary in m-learning environment. Modern Journal of Applied Linguistics, 7(1), 19-37.

This Indian paper presents the results of a study of L2 English vocabulary acquisition involving 60 university students.  A control group of 30 learned vocabulary through traditional methods (e.g., note taking, rote learning of word lists) whereas an experimental group of the same number used the smartphone-based IELTS Academic flashcard application for 20 hours in class. A comparison of pre-/post-test situational conversational speaking tasks demonstrated significant vocabulary improvements within the experimental group, which also significantly outperformed the control on the post-test.

Lam, P., Lam, S., Lam, J., & McNaught, C. (2009). Usability and usefulness of eBooks on PPCs: How students’ opinions vary over time. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 25(1), 30-44.

This study compared the short-term versus long-term impressions of L2 English university students in Hong Kong regarding the reading of e-texts on mobile devices. A short-term group of six participants read e-texts sporadically for a week or two whereas a long-term group of six did so extensively for twelve weeks. Over all, the short-term users expressed positive views about the ease of use, enjoyability and usefulness of the e-books. With the long-term users, initial positive expectations became more negative and in the end many complaints and considerable dissatisfaction were expressed.

Lan, E-M. (2021). A comparative study of computer and mobile-assisted pronunciation training: The case of university students in Taiwan. Education and Information Technologies, xx, xx.

This Taiwanese study compares the effectiveness of Computer-Assisted Pronunciation Training (CAPT) on its own and combined with Mobile-Assisted Pronunciation Training (MAPT) with A1-C1-level L2 English university students. CAPT was based on the English Pronunciation Advanced program and MAPT on English Pronunciation Tutor used with a mobile messaging app (LINE) for collaborative audio recordings. For eight weeks, an experimental group of 33 participants received both treatments while a control of 31 used only CAPT. Both groups performed significantly better on a post-test, but the experimental group more so than the control.

Lan, K., Lin, Y-T., Kao, C-L., …, & Liu, T-C. (2015). A study of mobile-assisted oral communication in Mandarin Chinese as a second language. Conference paper: The International Conference on Digital Learning Strategies and Applications (DLSA 2015), At Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan.

This Taiwanese study compared the L2 Chinese oral performance of 34 high school students of unspecified L2 Chinese competency level, 18 of whom used a mobile device to access a web-based multimedia collaborative learning system (Mobile Language Learning) while visiting shops out of class. A control group of 16 students role-played shopping scenarios in class with the aid of printed materials. A post-test conducted after six weeks revealed no significant difference between the two groups in oral performance. However, the experimental group used more language learning strategies and produced more target language than the control group.

Lan, Y-J., & Lin, Y-T. (2016). Mobile seamless technology enhanced CSL oral communication. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 19(3), 335-350.

This Taiwanese study evaluates the effect of learning L2 Chinese in a real-world compared to a simulated in-class environment. Over a four-week period, beginner-level young adults received in-class instruction for the task of receiving a friend from abroad. An experimental group of 18, using a smartphone/iPad-based location-aware language-prompting program (MOSE), practiced in real-world locations whereas a control group of 16 did role plays in class. Both groups made significant improvements in the Mandarin oral performance test. However, the real-world group made significantly fewer errors when executing language tasks.

Lan, Y-J., Sung, Y-T., & Chang, K-E. (2007). A mobile-device-supported peer-assisted learning system for collaborative early EFL reading. Language Learning & Technology, 11(3), 130-151.

This Taiwanese article reports on two studies, each involving the same 52 third-grade primary school children of mixed L2 English competence levels. Both lasted for ten weeks and focused on the collaborative acquisition of English reading skills. The first study assessed the weaknesses of collaborative learning in a traditional classroom. The second evaluated a tablet-PC based peer-assisted learning system (MPAL) that was developed for the purpose of addressing the collaborative weaknesses identified in the first study. MPAL was found to promote motivation to learn and enhance oral reading confidence in elementary L2 English learners.

Lan, Y-J., Sung, Y-T., & Chang, K-E. (2008). Designing and developing a mobile-device-supported interactive-writing platform: The struggle for supporting collaborative writing in a heterogeneous EFL class. Proceedings - ICCE 2008: 16th International Conference on Computers in Education (pp. 345-349).

This Taiwanese study describes the design and implementation of an interactive writing app (ePoetry Zone) that was intended to promote the collaborative interactive composition of English poems. It was trailed by 23 fourth-graders of unspecified L2 English competence level. Using the app, over ten weeks students individually composed their own poems, two weeks for each poem type. They uploaded these to a chat room, discussed their writing with their groupmates and displayed their finished poems. ePoetry Zone was able to promote EFL learners’ engagement and personal work creation. Participants collaborated willingly, but contributions often displayed a lack of mental effort.

Lan, Y-J., Sung, Y-T., & Chang, K-E. (2009). Let us read together: Development and evaluation of a computer-assisted reciprocal early English reading system. Computers & Education, 53(4), 1188-1198.

This study evaluated the effect of a mobile-accessible L2 English reading app (CAREER) upon the oral reading and retell fluency of 26 fourth-graders in Taiwan. For ten weeks, in class, participants used tablets to first individually complete a sight word and phonetic word module. They then worked collaboratively to teach their group the words they had learned and learn words from other group members. A control group of 26 did likewise using paper-based materials. On a pre-/post-test comparison, the experimental group significantly outperformed the control only on oral reading fluency.

Lan, Y-J., Sung, Y-T., & Chang, K-E. (2013). From particular to popular: Facilitating EFL mobile-supported cooperative reading. Language Learning & Technology, 17(3), 23-38.

This Taiwanese paper describes the trialing of a cooperative elementary L2 English reading program (MCER) with 20 third-grade primary school children which took place over two weeks (four 40-minute in-class sessions). The program was an enhancement of the MPAL system reported in Lan, Sung & Chang (2007) enhanced to support the instructor development of mobile-accessible reading materials for Asus EeePads.  The system included modules for material and class management as well as lesson sharing. A pre-/post-test comparison based upon the same early reading ability assessments demonstrated significant improvements.

Lan, Y-J., Sung, Y-T., & Chang, K-E. (2014). Bridging in-and-out class learning: Mobile seamless Mandarin learning. In Y. Cao, T. Valjataga, J. Tang … & M. Laampere (Eds.), New Horizons in Web Based Learning (pp. 101-105). 8699, LNCS Berlin: Springer.

This Taiwanese paper explored the effectiveness of a mobile-based elementary L2 Chinese learning app (MobileMan) which 41 Australian adolescent L1 English volunteer students used for 4 weeks.as a complement to a two-hour per week course. The app provided a location-based service that exploited QR codes to support context-aware out-of-class exploration undertaken both individually and co-operatively in small groups. Post-treatment testing demonstrated that MobileMan successfully played a role in stimulating the participating students, engaging them in social interaction in real contexts and consequently improved their Mandarin oral practices and learning motivation.

Lantavou, O. & Fesakis, G. (2018). The effect of an Augmented Reality board game on English vocabulary development. Proceedings of 12th European Conference on Games-Based Learning (pp. 316-324). SKEMA Business School, Sophia Antipolis, France.

This Greek study describes the effect of an L2 English mobile-based Augmented Reality board game (Pirates, ARrrg!) upon the A1-level English vocabulary acquisition of 13 L1 Greek 3rd-graders, who trialed the app with unspecified mobile devices during one 40-minute session. A matched control group of 13 played the same game without AR features for the same time duration. On a post-treatment attitude survey, the AR group revealed more negative attitudes and emotions than the control. The AR group also consistently demonstrated a lower average performance than the control in a pre-/post-test comparison, but the difference was not statistically significant.

Larabee, K., Burns, M., & McComas, J. (2014). Effects of an iPad-supported phonics intervention on decoding performance and time on-task. Journal of Behavioral Education, 23, 449-469.

This American paper compared the use of an iPad app (Build A Word—Easy Spelling with Phonics) to a word box intervention in teaching sound/letter correspondences to three first-graders (one L1 English and two L2 English) who lacked basic decoding skills. Over three weeks, in 11 sessions, participants alternated between treatments. These lasted about 8 minutes and were followed by a retention test at the beginning of the next session. The effects of the iPad application on student decoding performance were mixed and task engagement was high for both conditions.

Latypova, L., Polyakova, O., & Sungatullina, D. (2018). Mobile applications for English learning performance upgrade. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (pp. 403-411).

This Russian paper describes the extracurricular use of a mobile game-based L2 English learning app (ELEVATE). An undisclosed number of C1-level university students accessed ELEVATE via their mobile phones for nine months to improve their vocabulary, pronunciation, listening and comprehension without the teacher’s help. Participants were required to use the app and report back their progress on a regular basis. On a post-treatment test, they are said to have significantly outperformed a control group that did not use ELEVATE. However, statistical data is only provided relating to critical thinking ability and do not appear to substantiate this claim.

Laura-De La Cruz, K., Condori-Chacolli, M., Coronel-Roque, L., …, & Bazán-Velásquez, S. (2022). English language learning using WhatsApp application in a classroom. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems Volume, 469 10th World Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (pp. 492-501).

This Peruvian study investigated the effect of a social networking app (WhatsApp) upon the L2 English learning of 90 high school students. Using their Android smartphones over an unspecified time period, participants accessed the app as a learning platform for unspecified information organization, teamwork, reflection exercises, and problem-solving activities that targeted unspecified language usage. There was no pre-test, but an unspecified post-treatment language test suggested that the use of WhatsApp had a strong positive effect. Specifically, over 40% (37/90) of the learners placed in the outstanding and high categories. Moreover, more than half the students reported feeling comfortable using WhatsApp.

Lawrence, D. (2014). Students’ experiences of using SMS for vocabulary development - A case study. In Conference Proceedings of ICT for Language Learning (np).

This is essentially the same as the published 2016 version of the paper.

Lawrence, D. (2016). Students’ experiences of using mobile phones for Afrikaans vocabulary development. Tydskrifvir Taalonderrig, 50(1), 79-101.

This South African study describes the reactions of five university students to the use of a social networking app (WhatsApp) for L2 Afrikaans vocabulary learning. Participants self-assessed their Afrikaans competence from weak to good. Over seven weeks, participants received mini-lessons using their mobile phones, the first week via SMS and the remaining weeks via WhatsApp. Participants much preferred WhatsApp to SMS and in particular enjoyed lessons containing translations, pictures and voice notes because they found it stimulating and helped them recall the words. However, there was a definite preference for shorter lessons containing words as opposed to phrases or sentences.

Lee, B. (2019b). A case study of writing task performance: Smartphone input vs. handwriting. Memoirs of Fukui University of Technology, 49, 225-231.

This Japanese study evaluated the written productivity (word count) of two female advanced-intermediate-level L2 English university students. For 14 weeks, the volunteers answered a weekly open-ended question to which they provided a personal response. Half the time, the question was presented in printed form, to which the participants answered by handwriting. Half the time it was sent to their smartphones as an online Google form, to which the answer was written via the phone’s keypad. Both participants produced considerably and significantly more English prose when the task was undertaken via handwriting.

Lee, B. (2020). Smartphone tapping vs. handwriting: A comparison of writing medium. The EUROCALL Review, 28(1), 15-25.

This Japanese study assesses the productivity (word count) of L2 English university students under two conditions. During one session, L1 Japanese students of mixed L2 English competency levels from three English courses (first/second/third year) were asked to write about how they spent their summer holidays; 725 did so via a Google Form using their smartphones and 724 by handwriting their response. The mean production of English prose was higher for handwriting participants over smartphone users throughout the entire spectrum of proficiency levels, with differences being more pronounced for learners of higher proficiency than lower ones.

Lee, C., Hsu, K-C., & Shih, R-C. (2014). Effects of implementing C&U-Message through smartphones on English grammar learning for college students. The Online Journal of Distance Education and e-Learning, 2(1), 13-19.

This Taiwanese study investigated the effect of a smartphone-accessible messaging app (C&U-Message) upon the L2 English grammar learning of 26 college students of unspecified L2 English competence level. Out of class, every other day for six weeks, participants received grammar-based questions to which they had to reply the next day. A pre-/post-treatment grammar test demonstrated a significant increase in scores. Students also expressed a positive attitude toward the learning materials and treatment that provided more after class practice.

Lee, C-M., & Oh, E. (2014). Exploring the effects of a learner response system on EFL reading. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 17(2), 130-151.

This Korean study evaluated the effect of a clicker-based learner response system (Quiz Bell RF-219) upon the intermediate-level L2 English reading comprehension of 43 university students. The system was used for 15 weeks to allow participants to respond to multiple-choice reading questions presented on PowerPoint slides. A control group of 44 received the same instruction and questions, but responded by hand-raising. The clicker group significantly outperformed the non-clicker group on both a midterm and final reading exam. The clicker group also showed an improvement in behavioral engagement and general course satisfaction.

Lee, H. (2020). Gesture in Multimodal Language Learner Interaction via Videoconferencing on Mobile Devices. PhD dissertation, The Open University, UK.

This PhD dissertation from the UK describes the same research reported in Lee, Hampel & Kukulska-Hulme (2019).

Lee, H., Hampel. R., & Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2019). Gesture in speaking tasks beyond the classroom: An exploration of the multimodal negotiation of meaning via Skype videoconferencing on mobile devices. System, 81, 26-38.

This study describes the role of gestures in negotiating meaning in the mobile-based communication of ten adult B1/B2-level L2 English learners in a UK language center. Over five months, using a combination of smartphones and tablets, participants spent about five hours speaking with each other via Skype VC, then another eight hours in stimulated recall sessions using video recordings of their conversations. The study found that gestures support forms of negotiation through affording participants a range of visual and embodied clues which operate in close conjunction with their language use.

Lee, J. (2021). EFL students’ engagement, attitudes, and task participation in Augmented Reality mobile games and pleasure reading. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 74(4), 75-106.

This Korean study investigated how the engagement, attitudes, and task participation of L1 Korean university students were affected by Augmented Reality (AR) mobile game playing compared to pleasure reading. Over seven weeks, a total of 78 advanced-level L2 English students used their iPhones/iPads to solve a campus murder mystery. They also read a book of their own choosing. Activities, which were both individual and collaborative, included writing reports and related discussions. The AR game elicited significantly higher levels of behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement, as well as more positive attitudes (involvement, enjoyment, satisfaction, and willingness to continue), than pleasure reading.

Lee, J. (2022). Problem-based gaming via an Augmented Reality mobile game and a printed game in foreign language education. Education and Information Technologies, 27(1), 743-771.

This South Korean study describes the effect of an iOS game-based murder mystery Augmented Reality app (The Secret Investigation) upon the attitudes of L2 English university students toward foreign language learning. A C2 English competency level experimental group of 20 collaboratively played the mobile game during one 90-minute on-site session. A C1 competency level control group did likewise using a printed version of the game during one 90-minute in-class session. Both groups followed up with a 60-minute in-class discussion session. The only significant group difference was that the control group students perceived print reading as more useful for learning English.

Lee, J., & Song, J. (2020). The impact of group composition and task design on foreign language learners' interactions in mobile-based intercultural exchanges. ReCALL, 32(1), 63-84.

This study investigated the effect of group composition and task design on mobile phone-based communication between a group of 54 Korean and American university students of mixed L2 competence level, half L2 English speakers and half L2 Korean learners. Over eight weeks, thirty minutes per week in each language, they communicated textually and orally via an instant messenger app (KakaoTalk). Paired communication promoted a higher level of intimacy while larger groups learned more about different perspectives on the target cultures. Teacher-assigned tasks resulted in more productive interactions whereas student-selected tasks elicited more personal investment.

Lee, J-E., & Jeong, D. (2012). 모바일을활용한대학생영어말하기녹음과제의효과성 (The effectiveness of recording assignments of university students’ speaking through mobile devices). English Literature Studies, 38(1), 267-297. [in Korean]

This study investigated the effect of mobile-based e-mail activities upon the L2 English speaking ability of Korean university students of unspecified L2 English competence level. Over six weeks, sixteen students were assigned a reading passage, which they summarized and sent via e-mail to their instructor. Half of the group did so with audio recordings made on their smartphones, to which the instructor responded with corrections and comments. The other half sent a text-based summary followed-up by a face-to-face meeting with the instructor. The audio recording group significantly outscored the texters on a post-treatment speaking test.

Lee, K-S., & Kim, B-G. (2016). Cross Space: The exploration of SNS-based writing activities in a multimodal learning environment. Educational Technology & Society, 19(2), 57-76.

This Korean study investigated the effectiveness of using a Social Network Service (Kakao-Talk) as an out-of-class communication and discussion platform for L2 English collaborative writing. It was tested for 15 weeks with 62 B1-level university students to promote participation in writing activities and student anxiety about making mistakes. Although Kakao-Talk is a multi-platform app, it was assumed that students accessed it via their smartphones. Post-test results of 38 participants demonstrated significant writing improvement. Overall, students expressed positive attitudes regarding the use of the app for writing practice.

Lee, L. (2016). Multisensory modalities for blending and segmenting among early readers. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 29(5), 1-16.

This Malaysian study investigated the use of iPads compared to printed materials in two twenty-minute sessions that required blending and segmenting letters of non-words in L1 Malay and L2 English. One language was used in the first session and the other in the second. Participants were early-literate second-graders, 32 high-performing and 24 low-performing in English. To blend letters with printed words, participants physically moved letter cards around and with the iPads they dragged and dropped them. Separation was done by drawing a line or finger motion. Regardless of English ability level, there were no significant differences on an immediate post-test.

Lee, P. (2014). Are mobile devices more useful than conventional means as tools for learning vocabulary? IEEE 8th International Symposium on Embedded Multicore/Manycore SoCs (pp. 109-115). Washington, D.C.

This Taiwanese study evaluated the effectiveness of teaching L2 English vocabulary to three groups of 40 intermediate-level senior high school and university students. During 20 class periods over one month, one group learned with their teacher and a textbook, one used a mobile-based app without their teacher and the third learned with the app and their teacher. Most students preferred to learn from a conventional printed-based book, but pre-/post-test scores indicated that learning from mobile devices enhanced their learning, both when used independently and when combined with a teacher's instruction.

Lee, S-M., & Park, M. (2020). Reconceptualization of the context in language learning with a location-based AR app. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 33(8), 936-959.

This Korean study reports the results of a five-week experiment during which forty university students, of unspecified L2 English competence level, used a location-based AR app (7scenes) installed on their mobile devices to collaboratively create gamified digital stories from scenes captured around their campus. Working together, both in and out of class, participants created twelve scenes. Overall, they regarded the activity as authentic, interesting, motivating and meaningful. The study also discovered that the technology supported their language learning in the affective, cognitive, and social domains. Moreover, students thought that it had helped improve their productive language skills, most notably writing.

Lee, Y. (2021). Effectiveness of mobile assisted pronunciation training in the acquisition of English vowels /o/ and /ɔ/. 외국어교육 (Foreign Language Education), 28(3), 53-76.

This Korean study evaluated the effect of MALL-based training upon the pronunciation of 24 intermediate-low L2 English college students. Over a month, five minutes per day, participants listened to and voice-recorded targeted monosyllabic words containing the vowel /o/ and /ɔ/. This was done on their mobile phones using two apps: English Pronunciation for listening and repetition and Speech to Text for recording. A pre-/post-treatment comparison showed that the training had positive effects on improving students’ perception of the vowels /o/ and /ɔ/. There was also some progress in their production of these vowels, but not as noticeably as in perception.

Legault, J., Zhao, J., Chi, Y., …, & Li, P. (2019). Immersive virtual reality as an effective tool for second language vocabulary learning. Languages, 4(1), 1-13.

This study evaluated L2 Chinese vocabulary learning by ab initio American university students. Over two sessions, using an immersive virtual reality (IVR) handset (HTC Vive 32), 32 participants learned 30 kitchen item words and 30 zoo animal words, one set during each session. A control group of 32 did likewise using word-word paired association (WW) on a computer. Participants were tested on their Chinese vocabulary recall immediately after each session. Accuracy on trials learned via IVR was significantly higher compared to trials learned in the WW condition. So, too, less successful learners benefited more from iVR compared to WW instruction.

Lehman, B., Gu, L., Zhao, J., ...,  & Tanner Jackson, G. (2020). Use of adaptive feedback in an app for English language spontaneous speech. Artificial Intelligence in Education (pp. 309-320). Cham: Springer International Publishing.

This American study describes the trialing of a mobile-based L2 English app (ELAi) intended to provide corrective feedback to the spontaneous speech of intermediate/advanced-level learners preparing university entrance exams in China. Over one month, 94 participants used the app on average about nine times for five minutes each time. Users spent the majority of their time interacting with ELAi by viewing the shallowest level of feedback. Measuring progress by the reduction in the proportion of  “Needs Work” feedback received between the first and last third of their sessions, 27 participants demonstrated a large effect size improvement in their spontaneous speech.

Lei, Q-Q., & Liu, H-Y. (2020). Design of a WeChat mobile learning platform for multi-modal language learning and its application. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1616(1), 3rd International Symposium on Big Data and Applied Statistics (pp. 1-6). Kunming; China.

This study, presumably undertaken in China, evaluates the effectiveness of a mobile multi-modal L2 English learning platform supported by a social messaging app (WeChat).  For an unspecified period of time, with participants of unspecified L2 English competence level, the app was used to transmit texts, pictures, audio, and graphics to an experimental group of 48 higher vocational college students. A matched control group of 48 received its instruction via PowerPoint presentations. The experimental group significantly outscored the control on a pre-/post-treatment test of listening, writing and speaking skills, but there was no significant difference for translating or reading.

Lei, X., Fathi, J., Noorbakhsh, S., & Rahimi, M. (2022). The impact of mobile-assisted language learning on English as a foreign language learners’ vocabulary learning attitudes and self-regulatory capacity. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1-14.

This Iranian study investigated the impact of MALL upon the vocabulary learning attitudes and self-regulatory capacity of 139 L2 English learners over a one-year period. These language institute students, with an L2 English proficiency level ranging from Beginner to Advanced, accessed via their smartphones a half-dozen mobile apps. The findings indicated that the involvement of learners in MALL activities contributed to positive vocabulary learning attitudes and self-regulatory capacity in vocabulary learning over time. Moreover, changes in vocabulary learning attitudes and self-regulatory capacity in vocabulary learning were positively correlated.

Lei, Z. (2018). Vocabulary learning assisted with smart phone application. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 8(11), 1511-1516.

This Chinese paper evaluates perceptions of 30 university students of unspecified L2 English competence level regarding the use of smartphones with a mobile-based messaging app (WeChat) to learn 300 high-frequency English words. For a month, every two days, participants learned 20 words pre-selected by their teacher. WebChat was then used to make sentences, provide Chinese sentences for others to translate, or seek pronunciations and explanations of words. According to a post-treatment questionnaire, overall student response to vocabulary learning assisted by smartphones was significantly positive. In particular, participants claimed that it enhanced their self-regulation study ability.

Leis, A., Tohei, A., & Cooke, S. (2015). Smartphone assisted language learning and autonomy. International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 5(3), 75-88.

This Japanese paper investigates the effects of smartphone usage upon the autonomous English learning study habits of university students with a self-perceived beginner L2 English competence level. Compared to a control group of 60 who were prohibited from using their smartphones in class during the 15-week semester, an experimental group of 80 used their smartphones to video-record and review in-class role-plays. They were also encouraged to use their smartphones to access a pronunciation practicing and online testing application. The results indicated that students who were encouraged to use their smartphones during class studied twice as much in their free time.

Leone, S., & Leo, T. (2011). The synergy of paper-based and digital material for ubiquitous foreign language learners.  Knowledge Management & E-learning, 3(3), 319-341.

This Italian case study describes the integration of paper-based and QR code-based digital learning materials within three different L2 English courses consisting of 23 A1-level high school teachers, 16 B1+ high school students, and 15 A1-level vocational school adults. QR codes were individually and collaboratively accessed by 39 students using their own devices (laptops or ultra-mobile PCs or smartphones). Fifteen other students carried out assignments exploiting hardcopies only. Over four weeks learners undertook a variety of activities using all four language skills. Results of this study show that, despite some difficulties, QR codes can increase the impact of mobile devices to enhance the flexibility and personalization of learning.

Levitt, F. (2017a). Exploring the Use of MALL with a Scaffolded Multi-Sensory, Structured Language Approach to Support Development of Literacy Skills Among Second-Chance EFL Learners at a Technological-Vocational Secondary School in Israel. EdD dissertation, University of Sussex.

This British EdD dissertation describes the effects of an L2 English mobile basic literacy app (The English Club) upon the performance of eleven 9th-10th-graders in a technological-vocational secondary school in Israel. The participants, many of whom had attention deficits and hyperactivity issues, accessed the app using an iPod Touch 4 in class during 29 weekly sessions over seven months. Learners who actively engaged in the intervention made significant progress in their English literacy skills and increased their confidence in their ability to learn English and willingness to engage in learning.

Levy, M., & Kennedy, C. (2005). Learning Italian via mobile SMS. In A. Kukulska-Hulme & J. Traxler (Eds.), Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainer (pp. 76-83). London, UK: Taylor and Francis.

This Australian paper describes the experimental use of mobile phone SMS primarily to promote vocabulary acquisition in an intermediate-high university level L2 Italian class. For seven weeks, at various times and daily frequencies, 18 students were sent word definitions and example context sentences extracted from an assigned class novel. They also received messages on grammar, news, literature and course administration. A user survey revealed the messages encouraged students to look-up vocabulary and grammar points afterwards.

Lewis, D., & Datzman, B. (2020). The effects of a mobile-based multisensory approach to vocabulary learning in a Japanese EFL context. TESOL International Journal, 15(6), 4-32.

This study evaluated the effect of mobile-based authentic audiovisual materials upon the L2 English vocabulary acquisition of 31 Japanese university students whose English competence varied between low and intermediate-high. For fifteen weeks, participants studied 240 thematically organized words using their smartphones to access QR codes linked to exercises and related audiovisual materials on Google Forms. During the same time, a matched control group of 35 completed textbook-based vocabulary drills. Both groups demonstrated vocabulary learning progress on a pre-/post-test comparison, but the experimental group significantly more so than the control. Moreover, the intervention was equally effective for low and high achievers.

Li, C. (2009). SMS-based Vocabulary Learning for ESL Students. MA thesis, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand.

This MA thesis from New Zealand describes two studies involving the use of mobile phone SMS as a communication tool between the researcher and 20 intermediate-level L2 English university student volunteers. The focus of communication was on vocabulary acquisition through questions and replies about unknown words. In the first study questions were initiated by the researcher for seven weeks. Some students engaged actively in communication with the researcher while others stayed quiet most of the time. In the second study, which lasted six weeks, questions were initiated by the students. Although not all students liked using SMS, more actively engaged with it in memorizing and understanding new words than when questions were initiated by the researcher. Also, the average scores on five weekly vocabulary quizzes were greater under the second condition, though the statistical significance of this was not calculated.

Li, F., Fan, S., Wang, Y., & Lu, J. (2021). Chinese university students’ experience of WeChat-based English-language vocabulary learning. Education Sciences, 11(554), 1-12.

This Chinese study investigated the effect of gender, academic year and discipline major upon the L2 English vocabulary acquisition of 133 first-year and second-year university students. Their vocabulary learning was mediated over three weeks through a mobile-based social networking app (WeChat) that was used to deliver content and materials (texts, audios, video clips), daily practice and drills. The mean scores of students was significantly lower on a post-treatment vocabulary test than the pre-test, and no significant differences were observed based on gender, academic year or discipline major.

Li, J., & Cummins, J. (2019). Effect of using texting on vocabulary instruction for English learners. Language Learning and Technology, 23(2), 43-64.

This Canadian study investigated the effectiveness of text messaging upon the direct (targeted) and transferred (untargeted) vocabulary acquisition of 35 advanced-low L2 English university students. For nine weeks, participants received three academically-related words per day on their mobile devices. Each text message included a target word, its page reference in their assigned reading, part of speech, definition, and sample sentence. Compared to a control of 49 matched students who received the same class instruction without SMS intervention, the experimental group learned significantly more targeted words, but no more untargeted vocabulary.

Li, J., Cummins, J., & Deng, Q. (2017). The effectiveness of texting to enhance academic vocabulary learning: English language learners’ perspective. Computer-Assisted Language Learning, 30(8), 816-843.

This Canadian study investigated the perceptions of 40 foreign-born advanced-low level L2 English undergraduate students regarding their use of an SMS-based program (Word Matters) to learn vocabulary related to the content of their English for Academic Purposes courses. The data derives from the same study reported in Li & Cummins (2019). For two months, three times daily, students received a text message containing three words, the page reference of the words in their assigned reading, the words’ definition and example sentences. In all, a total of 189 words. Survey and interview results revealed students’ overall positive experience with the intervention.

Li, J., Ji, L., & Deng, Q. (2021).The heterogeneous and transfer effects of a texting-based intervention on enhancing university English learners’ vocabulary knowledge. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36(1-2), 52-80.

This study evaluated the effect of mobile phone-based texting upon the vocabulary acquisition of 49 advanced-low-level L2 English students at a Canadian university. Over nine weeks, participants received three text messages daily with information on target words encountered in their assigned readings. A matched control group of 66 who read the same texts were just encouraged to study high-usage and low-frequency academic words encountered using electronic or online dictionaries. Overall, learners in the intervention group performed significantly better in the target vocabulary post-test, though this applied only to those who had not mastered the General Receptive Vocabulary 3,000-frequency level.

Li, J., & Tong, F. (2019). Multimedia-assisted self-learning materials: The benefits of E-flashcards for vocabulary learning in Chinese as a foreign language. Reading and Writing, 32, 1175-1195.

This American study investigated the effectiveness of iPad-based multimedia e-flashcards on the acquisition of beginner-level L2 Chinese vocabulary. Participants were 100 L1 English elementary school children, half ab initio fourth-graders and half fifth-graders with one year of previous Chinese learning experience. Each grade spent one 45-minute session learning 20 words, half of each group using e-flashcards and half paper flashcards. Students who used e-flashcards outperformed those who used paper flashcards on immediate post-tests of Chinese word reading and listening, as well as on a one-week delayed listening test. Students who used E-flashcards demonstrated more positive learning attitudes towards learning Chinese.

Li, L., & Guo, M. (2018). Study on the WeChat-based after-class translation teaching mode of college English from the perspective of eco-translatology. Cross Cultural Communication, 14(1), 25-31.

This Chinese paper evaluated the use of a mobile-based instant messaging app (WeChat) as a platform for L2 English translation studies. For three months, 70 university students of unspecified L2 English competence level used WeChat out of class in two groups. The first was created for daily translation exercises and the second served as a communication channel for translation thoughts among students and the teacher. Student competency was tested pre-/post-treatment by a 100-150-word Chinese-English and English-Chinese translation (College English Test Band 4 level). Results demonstrated a significant improvement in median test scores.

Li, M., Ogata, H., Hashimoto, S., & Yano, Y. (2009). Adaptive Kanji learning using mobile-based email. In S. Kong, et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Computers in Education (pp. 520-526). Hong Kong: Asia-Pacific Society for Computers in Education.

This Japanese paper describes the design and one-month pilot testing of an adaptive mobile phone-based SMS system for Kanji teaching with learners of unspecified L2 Japanese competence level. For an experimental group of five Japanese learners, based on the correctness of their responses and the times at which materials were requested, the system adapted the difficulty level then pushed lessons at the most appropriate times. On a pre-/post-test comparison, this group outscored a control group of 5 non-native Japanese learners who received only non-adapted pushed SMS materials. The experimental group also expressed more interest in continuing using the adaptive system.

Li, M., Ogata, H., Hou, B., …, & Yano, Y. (2010a). Development of adaptive kanji learning system for mobile phone. International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 8(4), 29-41.

This Japanese article is the published version of two previous conference presentations, Li, et al. (2009) and Li, et al. (2010b), which describe an IRT adaptive learning system for Kanji based on mobile phone SMS/email. The system was pilot tested for a month by beginner-level L2 Japanese learners, five using the adaptive algorithm and five without it. All participants showed improvement though users of the adaptive version of the system more so than the control. All participants wanted to continue using the system.

Li, M., Ogata, H., Hou, B., …, & Yano, Y. (2010b). Development of adaptive vocabulary learning via mobile phone e-mail. 6th IEEE International Conference on Wireless, Mobile, and Ubiquitous Technologies in Education (pp. 34-41). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society.

This Japanese conference presentation presents the same study as that described in Li, et al. (2009) and published in Li, et al. (2010a).

Li, Q. (2017). Application of mobile learning in English teaching in higher vocational colleges. Proceedings 3rd International Conference on Management Science and Innovative Education (pp. 492-497).

This Chinese paper describes the effect of a mobile-based application (My Word) upon the vocabulary acquisition of 60 English majors of unspecified L2 English competence level at a higher vocational college. For four months, My Word was used to deliver a Daily Sentence to students. During the first 10 minutes of each class, students in small groups engaged in discussions based on the Daily Sentence. A matched control group of 49 followed the same curriculum without the use of My Word and associated discussions. According to the students’ self-evaluations, the experimental group significantly outperformed the control on a pre-/post-test comparison.

Li, R. (2021). Does game-based vocabulary learning app influence Chinese EFL learners’ vocabulary achievement, motivation and self-confidence? SAGE Open, 11(1), 1-12.

This Chinese study evaluated the effect of a mobile game-based app (Baicizhan) upon the English vocabulary acquisition of 35 college students of unspecified L2 English competence level. On a daily basis for 50 days, participants used their smartphones to access the app to learn 739 CET-4 level words. A matched control group of 35 studied the same words using a paper-based list. The app users significantly outscored the control on a pre-/post-treatment vocabulary test comparison. They also more significantly improved their vocabulary learning motivation and self-confidence.

Li, S., & Gao, Y. (2016). 李思萦&高原.移动技术辅助外语教学对英语词汇习得有效性的实证研(An empirical study on the effectiveness of mobile technology-assisted foreign language teaching for English vocabulary acquisition). Foreign Language World), 4, 73-81. [in Chinese]

This Chinese study compared the CALL versus MALL mediated learning of L2 English vocabulary. Over four weeks, four groups of 34 university students learned 97 targeted nouns in ten-minute class sessions under four conditions. A CALL condition used PowerPoint slides and MALL delivery used WeChat. Vocabulary was presented either only as text or as text+graphic. Each session was followed by an immediate post-test. There was no significant difference between CALL/MALL on the immediate post-tests, but MALL groups were clearly superior on two delayed-post-tests, with the text+graphic group doing the best.

Li, X., & Li, Y. (2016). 利用行動錄音資源提升英語學習自主性 (Using mobile recording resources for improving English learning autonomy. Modern Communication, 12, 241-242. [in Chinese]

This Chinese study investigated the effect of individual and collaborative mobile phone-based video dubbing upon the L2 English learning autonomy of 71 university students. For a semester, participants dubbed English news, advertisements, celebrity speeches, movie clips and songs. Learning autonomy was determined pre-/post-treatment relative to three parameters: self-management learning ability, self-directed learning behavior, self-directed learning psychology. While the results of a matched control group of 76 that did not engage in video dubbing remained essentially unchanged, the experimental group significantly improved in self-management learning ability, self-directed learning behavior. However, there was no significant difference in self-directed learning psychology.

Li, X-D., & Cao, H-H. (2020). Research on VR-supported flipped classroom blended learning — Based on a case study in “Learning English Through News”. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 10(2), 104-108.

This Chinese study describes the effect of blended flipped classroom teaching, supported by a mobile-accessible Virtual Reality-supported context-sensitive L2 English learning app (Smart English), upon the listening comprehension of 62 college students of unspecified English proficiency level. Over 15 weeks, out of class, participants watched micro-lectures and Learning English Through News videos, took notes, learned vocabulary from the videos, and completed related tests. In class, the teacher guided the students in task-driven class activities. Students on average increased their scores by over 15% on a pre-/post-treatment listening comprehension test comparison. They also expressed very positive views regarding the treatment.

Li, Y., & Hafner, C. (2021). Mobile-assisted vocabulary learning: Investigating receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge of Chinese EFL learners. ReCALL, First View, 1-15.

This Chinese study compared the effectiveness of a mobile-based flashcard app (Zhimi) and paper-based word cards with B1-level L2 English university students. Both learning devices presented English words with phonetic symbols, Chinese definitions, part of speech and collocations. In addition, Zhimi provided an audio pronunciation of the word. Over five days, 46 participants used Zhimi to learn ten words per day while a control group of 39 did likewise using paper cards. On a pre-/post-test comparison, both groups significantly increased their scores, but the experimental group more than the control.

Li, Z. (2019). Promoting L2 Idiomatic Competence among Chinese College Students via WeChat. PhD dissertation, University of South Florida, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

This Chinese study evaluated a mobile-based instant messaging app (WeChat) as a platform for the learning of L2 English idiomatic expressions. For eight weeks, 30 intermediate-level college students accessed WeChat in and out of class to collaboratively practice dialogues and video record role-play activities based on idioms learned in class. A matched control group practiced dialogues and performed role-plays only in class, collaboratively but without WeChat. The experimental group participants significantly outscored the control on a pre/post-treatment idiom test. They also expressed more positive learning attitudes, but not significantly so.

Liakin, D., Cardoso, W., & Liakina, N. (2013a). Mobile-assisted learning in the second language classroom. International Journal of Information Technology & Computer Science, 8(2), np.

This conference presentation evaluated the pronunciation of the vowel /y/ by L1 English speakers. Forty-two L2 French beginner-level Canadian university students were divided into three groups. For five weeks, two groups undertook weekly 20-minute pronunciation activities, one on their own time using Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) software (Dragon Dictation) with text feedback via their iPod-Touches/iPhones and the other in individual sessions with teacher correction. A control group spent the same amount of time in conversation practice without phonetic correction. On a pre-/post-test comparison, the ASR group outperformed the other groups in French /y/ production.

Liakin, D., Cardoso, W., & Liakina, N. (2013b). Mobile speech recognition software: A tool for teaching second language pronunciation. Cahiers de l’ILOB, 5, 85-99.

This Canadian study evaluated the effect upon French /y/ production of Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) software (Dragon Dictation) with text feedback.  For five weeks, three groups of fourteen beginner-level L2 French university students undertook weekly 20-minute speaking activities. An experimental group did so on their own time using the ASR system via iPod-Touches/iPhones. A second group had individual sessions with teacher correction. A control group spent the same amount of time in conversation practice without phonetic correction. While the ASR group outperformed the other groups in French /y/ production, there was no significant difference between the groups in /y/ perception.

Liakin, D., Cardoso, W., & Liakina, N. (2015). Learning L2 pronunciation with a mobile speech recognizer: French /y/. CALICO Journal, 32(1), 1-25. 

This is another publication of the same study described in Liakin, Cardoso & Liakina (2013a) and Liakin, Cardoso & Liakina, (2013b).

Liakin, D., Cardoso, W., & Liakina, N. (2017a). The pedagogical use of mobile speech synthesis (TTS): Focus on French liaison. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30(3-4), 325-342.

This Canadian paper evaluated the use of a mobile-based Text-to-Speech app (NaturalReader) for pronunciation practice with A2 level L2 French university students, all of whom were either native or fluent English speakers. Over five weeks, 9 participants completed 20-minute out-of-class liaison pronunciation activities using NaturalReader. A second group of 9 did likewise in class with their instructor while a control group of nine met individually with their instructor for conversation practice with no focus on liaison or pronunciation feedback. While the two experimental groups improved on a post-test and delayed post-test, there was no significant difference between the three groups.

Liakin, D., Cardoso, W., & Liakina, N. (2017b). Mobilizing instruction in a second-language context: Learners’ perceptions of two speech technologies. Languages, 2(3), np.

This Canadian paper reports on two studies that describe the perceptions of A2-level L2 French university students regarding their use of NaturalReader, a mobile-based text-to-speech synthesizer (TTS), and mobile-based automatic speech recognition (ASR). All participants, who were either native or fluent English speakers, spent 20 minutes per week for five weeks practicing their pronunciation. Pronunciation exercises focused a [y] in the first study and across-word re-syllabification (enchainement/liaison) in the second. The same three treatments were applied in both studies: independent app usage, instructor correction, conversations with the instructor without phonetic correction. Nine students were included in each treatment in the TTS study and fourteen in the ASR study. According to a post-treatment questionnaire, respondents viewed the use of both mobile TTS and ASR positively. They noted the tools’ pedagogical usefulness, their ability to increase involvement outside of class (e.g., learning and practicing pronunciation at their own convenience, anytime anywhere), and their ability to boost their confidence levels to practice and to speak. The questionnaire also revealed some weaknesses, notably the time to complete some ASR-based tasks and lack of accuracy in synthesizing text (TTS) or recognizing speech (ASR).

Liao, L. (2023). Artificial intelligence-based English vocabulary test research on cognitive web services platforms: User retrieval behavior of English mobile learning. International Journal of e-Collaboration, 19(2), 1-19.

This Chinese study evaluated the effect of a mobile-accessible rote memory app (Memorize) upon the learning of L2 English vocabulary by 31 junior high school students of unspecified English competence level. Over twelve weeks, presumably using personal smartphones, participants learned unspecified vocabulary following unspecified procedures. On a pre-/post-treatment comparison, they significantly outscored a control group of 27, also of unspecified English competence level, on an unspecified vocabulary test. In particular, it is noted that the experimental group greatly improved between the pre-test and post-test in spelling.

Liao, P., & Lin, C-S. (2016). Innovation design: Integrating mobile-mediated communication with computational intelligence for task-based EFL learning in Taiwanese higher education. Eighth International Conference on Advanced Computational Intelligence (pp. 186-192). IEEE.

This Taiwanese study investigated the effect of combining a mobile-accessible game (Egyptian Tomb Adventure) and instant messaging app (LINE) upon the communication skills and writing ability of 20 beginner-level (TOEIC 350-370) L2 English university students. Over six weeks, working in pairs, participants communicated with each other via LINE about the game they were playing. They then wrote a game report, which was self-and peer-corrected. A pre-/post-treatment comparison demonstrated that the participants’ task-based communication activities resulted in improved writing performance. Overall, participants agreed that the experience was interesting, motivating, and inspiring.

Lim, C., & Lee, J. (2015). The effects of task modality and type on Korean EFL learners’ interactions. Journal of Asia TEFL, 12(2), 87-123.

This Korean paper involved intermediate-high to advanced-level L2 English university students who were divided into two groups of eight to assess the effect of face-to-face conversations versus mobile-phone text chatting upon communicative interactions. Performance was evaluated relative to one convergent (decision-making) versus one divergent (opinion-exchange) task. The experiment involved one face-to-face session plus extramural text-chatting. Participants spent much longer completing tasks in mobile mode though the length of text chats, measured by the number of words and turns, was shorter than that of face-to-face conversations. Text chatters also tended to use meaning negotiation devices less frequently than in face-to-face mode.

Limsukhawata, S., Kaewyounb, S., Wongwatkitc, C., & Wongta, J. (2016). A development of Augmented Reality-supported mobile game application based on jolly phonics approach to enhancing English phonics learning performance of ESL learners. In W. Chen, et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Computers in Education (np).  India: Asia-Pacific Society for Computers in Education.

This conference presentation describes the design and pilot testing of an Augmented Reality-supported mobile game app (P-Whale) intended to teach children L2 English letter/word sound correspondences. The app works with related AR cards that are accessed via the camera of a mobile device. The system, which was based on the Jolly Phonics approach, was trialed by 36 Thai first-graders during one and a half class sessions. The children significantly improved their scores on a pre-/post-treatment phonics test comparison. A post-treatment survey also revealed their positive attitudes towards the application.

Lin, C-C. (2014). Learning English reading in a mobile-assisted extensive reading program. Computers & Education, 78, 48-59.

This Taiwanese paper investigated the effect upon extensive reading done via tablets compared to PCs on the attitudes and performance of 84 L2 English high school students. For 10 weeks, once per week, participants read in class assigned Raz-Kids stories, half the group using iPad minis and the other PCs. Students were also encouraged to read out-of-class as many additional Raz-Kids stories as possible. The tablet group appreciated online reading more than the PC group and significantly outperformed it in time spent reading, books read, and tests taken.

Lin, C-C. (2017). Learning English with electronic textbooks on tablet PCs. Interactive Learning Environments, 24(8), 1035-1047.

This Taiwanese study evaluated the reading of texts on tablet computers compared to a printed textbook. The evaluation took place over four weeks (250 minute class time per week) and involved 152 low-intermediate-level L2 English senior high school students of which 75 used tablet computers for all reading. No significant differences were observed on pre-/post-tests of either reading proficiency, reading comprehension or vocabulary learning. However, according to post-treatment questionnaire responses, those using tablet PCs held positive perceptions about them mainly because of immediate access to lexical information and reading resources.

Lin, C-C., Barrett, N, & Liu G-Z. (2020). English outside the academic sphere: A mobile-based context-aware comparison study on collaborative and individual learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 36(7), 1-15.

This Chinese study evaluated the effects of a mobile-based physical fitness app (Fitness-Based English and Ubiquitous Learning) upon listening and reading comprehension. Over eight weeks, intermediate-level L2 university students using their smartphones accessed QR codes attached to training machines in a gym. The codes linked to videos, audios and texts relating to the machine’s physical fitness function. Thirty-one participants accessed this information individually and thirty in collaborative pairs. In terms of listening and reading comprehension the collaborative group outscored the individual learners on a post-treatment test, but not significantly so.

Lin, C-C., & Hsiao, H-S. (2011). The effects of multimedia annotations via PDA on EFL learners’ vocabulary learning. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Computers in Education (pp. 579-586).

This Taiwanese study examined the effect of annotation types upon the vocabulary learning of 121 pre-intermediate L2 English high school students. Participants used PDAs to read four passages each containing five annotated verbs. Two groups did this with Chinese definitions accompanied by either a picture or an animation. Two other groups did likewise with English definitions. An immediate post-test revealed no significant differences between the definition languages but a significant difference in favor of animations. A one-month delayed post-test showed no significant difference for either definition language or visual aid.

Lin, C-C., & Yu, Y-C. (2012a). Learning English vocabulary on mobile phones. In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts, W-C. Vivian Wu & Y-C. Joni Chao (Eds.), The Medium Matters (Proceedings from the 15th International CALL Conference) (pp. 416-420).

This conference presentation describes a mobile phone MMS-based L2 English vocabulary learning program that was trialed for four weeks by 32 Taiwanese junior high school pupils of unspecified L2 English competency level. Nine words a week were delivered in one of four modes: text (syntactic category, Chinese translation, example sentence), text+audio (word/sentence pronunciation), text+image, and text+audio+image. Student evaluations of the system were very positive, but the effects of different presentation modes on vocabulary learning were not significantly different.

Lin, C-C., & Yu, Y-C. (2012b). EFL learners’ cognitive load of learning vocabulary on mobile phones. ICCE 2012 Conference. Singapore. November 26-30, 2012. np.

This conference presentation is an extended version of the paper presented in Lin, C-C., & Yu, Y-C. (2012a).  It describes the same mobile phone MMS-based beginner-level L2 English vocabulary program that was trialed by 32 Taiwanese junior high school pupils for four weeks. No significant differences were found in the L2 English vocabulary acquisition between the four presentation modes: text, text+audio, text+image, and text+audio+image. However, the text+audio+picture mode imposed the least cognitive load and the text-audio mode induced lower cognitive load on learning than the text mode.

Lin, C-C. & Yu, Y-C. (2016). Effects of presentation modes on mobile-assisted vocabulary learning and cognitive load. Interactive Learning Environments, 25(4), 528-542.

This Taiwanese paper appears to be a reanalysis of the data presented in Lin, C-C., & Yu, Y-C. (2012a) and Lin, C-C., & Yu, Y-C. (2012b). It describes a mobile phone MMS-based elementary-level L2 English vocabulary program trialed by 32 8th-graders for four weeks. No significant differences related to presentation mode (text, text+audio, text+image, and text+audio+image) were found with immediate tests. However, significantly greater vocabulary retention was observed in two-week delayed post-tests with sounds and picture presentations. New words presented without audio support imposed a significantly higher cognitive load than those with audio support.

Lin, C-J., & Hwang, G-J. (2018). A learning analytics approach to investigating factors affecting EFL students’ oral performance in a flipped classroom. Educational Technology & Society, 21(2), 205-219.

This Taiwanese study evaluated the oral competence development of elementary-level (TOEIC 350-550) L2 English university students under two pedagogical approaches. Over 10 weeks, two classes received the same instruction, 16 in a traditional class and 33 in a flipped classroom via a mobile-accessible social networking app (Facebook), which was used to preview and discuss class lesson materials and do related supplementary oral and written assignments. All students submitted three oral performance video clips, the first and last serving as a pre-/post-test. The results were significantly better for the flipped-class group.

Lin, C-P., Liu, K-P., & Niramitranon, J. (2008). Tablet PC to support collaborative learning: An empirical study of English vocabulary learning. In Fifth IEEE International Conference on Wireless, Mobile, and Ubiquitous Technology in Education (pp. 47-51). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society.

This Taiwanese paper studies the effect of hand-drawn sketches using the Group Scribbles app on web-linked tablet PCs to support the in-class collaborative learning of L2 English vocabulary by primary school children. The system was trialed by 20 fifth graders of unspecified L2 English competency level during an 80-minute class session. The outcomes after the completion of learning activities showed the system increased vocabulary learning, aroused students’ motivations and improved their mutual interactions.

Lin, I-T., Chen Hsieh, J., & Wu, W-C. (2017). Ubiquitous English idiom learning via mobile applications. In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts, R. Kern & M. Kaiser (Eds.), ProceedingsCALL in Context (pp. 461-469).­­­­­

This Taiwanese study evaluated the effect of a mobile vocabulary app (My English Idiom Learning Assistant) upon the intermediate-level L2 English knowledge 60 university students. Over three weeks, participants studied 70 idioms using unspecified mobile devices. The LINE messaging app was used as a platform for viewing videos that incorporated targeted idioms and listening to instructor recordings to which students responded with the targeted idioms. Students performed significantly better on a pre-/post-test comparison. Student attitudes towards the treatment were generally very positive.

Lin, I-T., Chou, Y-C. , Wu, W-C., & Lee, H-C. (2018). The relationship between university students’ behavior and their learning efficiency via idiom-based mobile application: A sequential analysis. In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts & F. Cornillie (Eds.), Call Your Data: Proceedings (pp. 237-246). University of Antwerp.

This conference presentation describes the learning behavior of 63 Taiwanese university students, of B1-level L2 English competency level, when using a locally developed L2 English vocabulary app (MEILA) for three weeks to learn 50 idiomatic expressions. High proficiency learners began by watching the animations. Next, they read the example sentences, watched the instructional videos, and then returned to the example sentences.  Low proficiency learners, however, read the example sentences immediately after they logged-in to MEILA and preferred the listening function instead of watching animations since they could read the Chinese translation in the example sentence while they were listening.

Lin, M-C., & Wu, Y-J. (2010). Netbooks in sixth-grade English language classroom. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 26(7), 1062-1074.

This Taiwanese paper describes the effect of integrating the in-class use of netbook computers into the L2 English curriculum of sixth-grade pupils, For 19 weeks, an experimental group of 45 students of unspecified L2 English competency level used the netbooks to collaboratively create a mini online dictionary, introduce themselves with webcam photos and voice recordings, act out stories and solve a suspense story. A matched control group of 44 did similar activities without technology. The experimental group performed significantly better only in the written portion of the final exam and had a more positive attitude toward learning English.

Lin, N., Kajita, S., & Mase, K. (2007). Story-based CALL for Japanese kanji characters: A study on student learning motivation. The JALT CALL Journal, 3(1,2), 25-44.

This Japanese article describes the design and trialing of a mobile-based system intended as a textbook complement to support the learning of Kanji by L2 Japanese university volunteers through the creation of mnemonic stories, which learners record orally to help memorize characters. The effect of the system on learner motivation (not learning results) was evaluated in a trial with eight university volunteers for two weeks using a specially configured COWON iAudio device. The results showed that the story-based Kanji system positively affected student motivation.

Lin, N., Kajita, S., & Mase, K. (2008). Mobile user behavior and attitudes during story-based kanji learning. JALT CALL Journal, 4(1), 3-18.

This Japanese article investigates the usage patterns and attitudes of eight volunteers who trialed the story-based mobile Kanji learning system described in Lin, Kajita & Mase (2007). System user results were complemented by a survey of six L2 Japanese learners who used the same mnemonic technique without the mobile program. The results showed significant correlations between user behavior and self-reported user attitudes and general agreement among the system non-users that a mobile system would be useful for learning Kanji.

Lin, N., & Mase, K. (2006). An audio-based approach to mobile learning of Japanese Kanji characters. Proceedings of the 5th World Conference on Mobile Learning, Banff, Alberta, Canada.

This Japanese paper describes the design of a PDA-based audio-only system intended as a textbook complement for the passive review of Kanji characters by L2 Japanese learners who are only required to listen. Using voice synthesis, a web-based prototype of the program presented in random order the names of 2000 kanji characters and their subcomponents. For a month, 16 volunteers tested the relative effectiveness of learning the meaning of Kanji characters as opposed to learning their subcomponents, with learning the parts being the more effective.

Lin, V., Liu, G-Z., & Chen, N-S. (2022). The effects of an augmented-reality ubiquitous writing application: A comparative pilot project for enhancing EFL writing instruction. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35(5-6), 989-1030.

This study investigates the effect of a mobile-based augmented-reality app upon the L2 English writing of Taiwanese university students. Over seven weeks, seventeen participants collected information, within an environmentally green building, related to global warming about which they wrote an analytical report. Using the same background information, a control group of seventeen did likewise without visiting the building or using the app. Pre-/post-tests showed that both modes led to significant improvement in writing the analytical essay, but additional cognitive processing during AR-based learning led to mixed results in writing performance.

Lin, Y., & Wang, H. (2023). Applying Augmented Reality in a university English class: Learners’ perceptions of creativity and learning motivation. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 17(2), 291-305.

This Taiwanese study describes the effect of an Augmented Reality project upon the creativity and learning motivation of 22 university students of unspecified L2 English competence level. Over sixteen weeks, participants used an AR programming app (Assemblr) via their smartphones to create a welcoming pamphlet containing textual descriptions of campus locations with two QR codes linking to a 3D video. Although not statistically significant, a pre-/post-treatment survey of learners’ attitudes demonstrated a higher level of favorable perceptions of creative thinking and a lower tendency for premature critical evaluation of ideas. The project was also judged to be a motivating experience.

Lin, Y-T., & Chen, H-J. (2012). Investigating the effects of podcasts via smartphones on foreign language learning. In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts, W-C. Vivian Wu & Y-C. Joni Chao (Eds.), The Medium Matters (Proceedings 15th International CALL Conference) (pp. 446-449).

This Taiwanese paper reports the preliminary results of a study of the effect on L2 English learning of podcasts sent to student smartphones via e-mail. Twenty-five intermediate-high-level college volunteers participated in the study, which exploited publicly available podcasts targeting specific vocabulary items and grammar points sent to them twice daily for a month. A post-test after the first two weeks confirmed large gains in listening ability, vocabulary learning and grammar knowledge.

Lin, Y-T., Kao, C-L., & Lan, K-Y. (2016). The effects of mobile learning on students' oral performance in Mandarin Chinese and their attitudes. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 10(1/2), 78-101.

This Taiwanese study investigated the effect of the Mobile Language Learning System upon a mixed level cohort of overseas L2 Chinese learners. For 2 weeks, one hour per week, a Real-World-Context group of 18 visited shops and interacted with shopkeepers using the mobile app. A Classroom-Context group of 16 did likewise through simulated role play in class without access to the mobile app. A significant improvement in oral performance was observed only for the advanced-level Real-World-Context group students. There was no significant difference in learning attitudes between the two groups.

Lindström, N., & Hashemi, S. (2019). Mobile technology for social inclusion of migrants in the age of globalization: A case study of newly arrived healthcare professionals in Sweden. The International Journal of Technology, Knowledge, and Society, 15(2), 1-18.

This Swedish study describes the reactions of adult education immigrants to the use of a smartphone-based app (Welcome!). It involved 21 healthcare practitioners who nearly all rated their L2 Swedish competence as average or better. Participants used the app out of class for two weeks to complete assigned tasks which encouraged them to interact with local native speakers. Post-treatment focus group interviews revealed little usage of the app owing to a perceived lack of clear relevance between its content and what the participants perceived to be their immediate employment-related needs.

Listiani, G. (2016). The effectiveness of Instagram writing compared to teacher-centered writing to teach recount text to students with high and low motivation (The case of eight grade students in SMP Kesatrian 1 Semarang in the academic year of 2015/2016). ELT Forum - Journal of English Language Teaching,5(1), 1-8.

This Indonesian paper assesses the effect of using a mobile-based social networking app (Instagram) for the writing of simple narrative English texts. Over an undisclosed period, with students of unspecified L2 English competence level, an experimental group of twenty eighth-graders uploaded pictures to their Instagram account. To these they added descriptions and commented on their friends’ picture. A matched control group of 20 followed a teacher-centered curriculum without use of the app. On a pre-/post-treatment comparison, the writing of both groups, regardless of motivation level, showed significant improvement, but the experimental group more so than the control.

Liu, C. (2017). Application of Mobile Phones Apps in College English Vocabulary Learning-A case of Bai Cizhan (移动手机软件在大学英语词汇学习中的应用研究 — 以百词斩为例). MA thesis, Northwest Normal University, China.

This Chinese MA thesis evaluated the effect of a vocabulary app (Bai Cizhan) upon the L2 English vocabulary acquisition of college students preparing the CETB4 test. The English competence level of the students was unspecified. Over twelve weeks, 40 participants studied 740 words, 10-15 per day, using their smartphones to access the app. A control group of 30 did likewise using a printed paper format. The experimental group significantly outscored the control on a pre-/post-treatment test of vocabulary depth, but there was no significant difference between the groups for vocabulary size. The app users found it useful, effective and entertaining.

Liu, G-Z., Chen, J-Y., & Hwang, G-J. (2018). Mobile-based collaborative learning in the fitness center: A case study on the development of English listening comprehension with a context-aware application. British Journal of Educational Technology, 49(2), 305-320.

This Taiwanese paper describes a twelve-week experiment in which 36 intermediate-level L2 English university students used their smartphones to watch videos about the use of exercise machines, which they located by means of QR codes that were attached to them. Participants worked collaboratively in groups of three to understand recorded aural questions, to which they responded individually in writing.  Significant improvement in listening comprehension was demonstrated in a pre-test/post-test/delayed-post-test (two weeks) comparison (mean scores of 67.33, 76.92, and 84.50, respectively). Participants considered the system to be useful for learning English.

Liu, G-Z., Kuo, F-R., Shi, Y-R., & Chen, Y-W. (2015). Dedicated design and usability of a context-aware ubiquitous learning environment for developing receptive language skills: A case study. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 9(1), 49-65.

This Taiwanese paper investigated the effect of a PDA-based learning system upon the reading and listening comprehension of intermediate-level L2 English learners. The system exploited wireless Internet and RFID readers & tags to present context-aware reading units and scenario-based conversations about a local site. For three weeks, 24 participants explored the site using their PDA devices while a control group of 23 studied the same content via an e-learning program.  The PDA group significantly outscored the control on a post-test of vocabulary and content based on the lesson materials.

Liu, I-F. (2022). Gamified mobile learning: Effects on English learning in technical college students. Computer Assisted Language Learning, xx, 1-24.

This study investigated the effect of mobile-based collaborative interaction upon the L2 English vocabulary acquisition of Taiwanese technical college students of unspecified English competence level. Weekly over 16 weeks, four groups of 30 students played a blockade game under one of four conditions: Paper-based individual, paper-based collaborative pairs, smartphone-based individual, smartphone-based collaborative pairs. Smartphones allowed students to search for information on the Internet and, via an instant messaging app (LINE), created opportunities for discussion and interaction between paired members. Only the two collaborative groups demonstrated significant improvement on a pre-/post-treatment vocabulary test. Smartphone usage also generated stronger perceptions of collaboration.

Liu, J., Yu, S., & Ran, M. (2008). Research on the communicative mobile English learning model. In Fifth IEEE International Conference on Wireless, Mobile, and Ubiquitous Technology in Education (pp. 60-64). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society.

This Chinese paper describes a language learning system (CMEL Model) based on the Noah NP860, a specialized mobile device designed to support the independent, extra-curricular, acquisition of L2 English by primary school children. The program, which includes family education activities, mainly consists of reading, listening and information look-up. 71 pupils of unspecified L2 English competency level and their parents tested the system for three weeks. Post-tests confirmed learning gains and students, teachers and parents all expressed their acceptance of the system.

Liu, K-P., & Liu, C-C. (2013). Facilitating EFL with storytelling on tablet PCs. In L-H. Wong, et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Computers in Education (pp. 527-532). Indonesia: Asia-Pacific Society for Computers in Education.

This Taiwanese study evaluated over a five-month period the effectiveness of storytelling with iPads to improve the L2 English performance of 32 12-year-old school children of unspecified L2 English competency level. Participants used the platform to draw a four-image scene, about which they wrote and orally recorded a story. On a post-test assessment, this experimental group outscored in overall performance a matched control group of 32 students which had not engaged in storytelling exercises. However, there was no statistically significant difference in terms of listening and sentence reading/writing performance between the two groups.

Liu, P-H., & Tsai, M-K. (2013). Using augmented-reality-based mobile learning material in EFL English composition: An exploratory case study. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(1), E1-E4.

This exploratory study investigates the effects of a GPS-based Augmented Reality system on the writing of five English majors of unspecified L2 English competence level at a Taiwanese university. The students visited several on-campus locations about which descriptive information was sent to their smartphones. During apparently one session, they then wrote an essay describing the observed scenery and completed a questionnaire relating to their experience with the system. Analysis of the compositions revealed that the AR-based mobile learning material not only provided linguistic and content knowledge for the participants, but also helped them construct knowledge and produce meaningful essays.

Liu, P-H., & Wu, W-C. (2016). Exploring the effectiveness of LINE for EFL vocabulary and reading. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 15(13), 71-83.

This study evaluated the effect of a communication app (LINE) upon the L2 English reading and vocabulary acquisition of forty Taiwanese university students of unspecified L2 English competence level. For fifteen weeks, working in small groups, participants accessed LINE to undertake out-of-class role-play assignments. A pre-/post-test comparison demonstrated statistically significant improvement in vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. The study also showed that students who were more engaged in the LINE-based activities tended to have improved more than those who were less active. Overall, participants had positive perceptions of the LINE-based activities.

Liu, P-L. (2016). Mobile English vocabulary learning based on concept-mapping strategy. Language Learning & Technology, 20(3), 128-141.

This Taiwanese mobile-phone-based experiment studied the effect of concept mapping upon the L2 English vocabulary retention of intermediate-level university students. For two weeks, 100 students received a total of 32 words. The experimental half of the group did so via daily MMS which included images that served as the basis of student-made concept maps. The control half of the group received the words as text-based SMS that included syntactic categories, Chinese translations, and example sentences. The concept-mapping group significantly outperformed the text-only group on a post-test and one-week delayed post-test.

Liu, P-L., & Chen, C-J. (2012). A study of mobile-assisted photo-taking for English phrase learning and sentence making. In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts, W-C. Vivian Wu & Y-C. Joni Chao (Eds.), The Medium Matters (Proceedings 15th International CALL Conference) (pp. 762-765).

This Taiwanese conference paper is essentially an abridged version of Liu, Ju, Chen & Wen (2011). It explores the effect of mobile phone-based photo taking upon L2 English phrase learning and sentence making performance of intermediate-level L2 English university students.

Liu, P-L., & Chen, C-J. (2015). Learning English through actions: A study of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning.  Interactive Learning Environments, 23(2), 158-171.

This Taiwanese study investigated the use of mobile-phone cameras for picture-taking to support a Total Physical Response approach to the learning of L2 English phrases. For seven weeks, a control group of 48 university students of unspecified L2 English competence level used the Internet to find photos illustrating 20 English phrases. A matched experimental group of 68 did likewise with photos taken on their own mobile phones. Students then worked in pairs to create new sentences incorporating the newly learned phrases. The experimental group outperformed the control on both an immediate and delayed post-test of these phrases.

Liu, P-L., Ju, L-H., Chen, C-J., & Wen, P-C. (2011). A study of mobile-assisted photo-taking for English phrase learning. In A. Mohd Ayub, et al. (Eds.), Workshop Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Computers in Education (pp. 47-55), ICCE 2011.

This Taiwanese paper examines the phrase learning of intermediate-level L2 English university students. An experimental group of 68 worked in pairs for seven weeks to create English sentences with 20 phrases learned in class, based on photos taken with their mobile phones. A control group of 49 worked in pairs to create their sentences without taking photographs. Overall, the experimental group significantly outscored the control on an immediate post-test (consisting of translation, fill-in blanks, and multiple-choice items) as well as on a delayed post-test four weeks later.

Liu, T-Y. (2009). A context-aware ubiquitous learning environment for language listening and speaking. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25(6), 515-527.

This Taiwanese study describes the design and implementation of a game-based, context/location aware, mobile Augmented Reality program (Handheld English Language Learning Organization – HELLO) intended to improve L2 English listening and speaking competence. It was trialed over eight weeks with 32 seventh-graders of unspecified English competency level, working individually and collaboratively, in groups of eight. QRcode readers on the PDAs used by the experimental group determined the data participants received. A matched control group, consisting of four eight-member teams, undertook the same tasks in class using CD and Mp3 players. The experimental group significantly outperformed the control on a post-test comparison.

Liu, T-Y., & Chu, Y. (2010). Using ubiquitous games in an English listening and speaking course: impact on learning outcomes and motivation. Computers & Education, 55(2), 630-643.

This Taiwanese paper is a more detailed account of the study first reported in Liu (2009). It describes the pilot-testing over eight weeks, 45 minutes per week, of the location-aware HELLO language learning system for L2 English listening and speaking by 32 seventh-graders of unspecified L2 English competency level. HELLO consists of three task-based games, two played collaboratively and one independently. The latter is a treasure hunt played with a virtual online tutor. All test results of the HELLO group were significantly better than those of a matched control group of 32 that studied without the system.

Liu, T-Y., Tan, T-H., & Chu, Y-L. (2007). 2D barcode and Augmented Reality supported English learning system. Proceedings of the 6th IEEE International Conference on Computer and Information Science (pp. 5-10). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society.

This Taiwanese conference presentation is the first of several by Liu and colleagues that describe the game-based HELLO language learning system. HELLO integrates PDAs, 2D barcodes, the Internet, Augmented Reality, mobile computing, and database technologies to support L2 English listening and speaking. A prototype of the system was trialed for four weeks by 20 college students to evaluate the effects of the learning system and student attitudes towards it use. Results indicated that the technology was useful for English learning.

Liu, T-Y., Tan, T-H., & Chu, Y-L. (2010). QR code and Augmented Reality-supported mobile English learning system. In X. Jiang, M-Y. Ma & C-W. Chen (Eds.), Workshop of Mobile Multimedia Processing 2008, Lecture Notes in Computer Science (pp. 37-52).

This Taiwanese paper describes the ongoing development of the mobile handheld HELLO context-aware language learning system reported previously in Liu, Tan & Chu (2007), Liu (2009), Liu & Chu (2010). This study focuses on the use of QR codes to determine user location. Pilot testing of the QR-based system was undertaken over a period of four weeks by 20 university students playing two games, one of which involved an online virtual tutor. Student questionnaire responses indicated that most participants found HELLO easy to use and useful for assisting learning.

Liu, X., & Hou, S. (2020). Effects of VR on users' speaking performance and cognitive load: Design of VR-assisted English-speaking application on mobile phones. Proceedings - 2020 International Conference on Intelligent Design (pp. 128-131).

This conference presentation evaluates the effect of a virtual reality video (Life Inside a Coffin Home) upon the English-speaking performance and experienced cognitive load of 22 intermediate-level L2 English college students in China. Over two weeks, one session weekly, participants first listened to an audio for which they had to give an oral summary and provide some personal comments. During the second week, they did likewise using mobile phones to view the virtual reality video. Speech performance was judged according to content, fluency, and vocabulary. Speaking performance significantly improved with the virtual reality treatment, but cognitive load also increased.

Liu, X., Zhu, C., Jiao, J., & Xu, M. (2018). Promoting English pronunciation via mobile devices-based automatic speech evaluation (ASE) technology. International Conference on Blended Learning (pp. 333-343). Springer, Cham.

This conference presentation describes the use of an L2 English pronunciation app (Fluent English) with 32 Chinese seventh-graders of unspecified L2 English competency level. For two months, students used smartphones to access the app and listen to dialogues, read after the dialogues, and receive feedback on their pronunciation. A control group of 32 other seventh-graders received only traditional instruction. The experimental group significantly outscored the control on a post-treatment audio recording test that assessed their pronunciation, intonation and total effect.

Liu, Y. (2016). Improving Chinese University Students' Speaking Performance in Mobile-Assisted English Learning. PhD dissertation, University of Illinois at Chicago. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

This American PhD dissertation explored the effect of feedback upon the L2 English speaking ability of Chinese university students of unspecified L2 English competency level. Over one week, working in pairs, participants used their smartphones to access WeChat and orally discuss two decision-making tasks, for which they submitted an oral summary. Following the first task, 52 participants received positive feedback about their oral summary while 47 received only neutral feedback. On the second recorded discussion summary, the use of positive feedback was found to significantly improve the complexity of speaking performance but not accuracy or fluency.

Liu, Y-F., Hwang, W-Y., & Liu, Z-Y. (2021). Effects of mobile drama with authentic contexts on English learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 59(7), 1294-1318.

This Taiwanese study investigated how acting out student-created sketches based on reading assignments effected the spoken and written L2 English competence of junior high school students. Over four weeks, four hours weekly, 48 participants of unspecified L2 English competence level worked in groups of four to create their sketches. Half the participants used a mobile annotatable multimedia E-reader to take notes of their reading while the other half took notes on paper. The mobile-assisted group participants significantly outperformed the paper-based group on pre-/post-treatment oral and written tests. They also were more highly motivated and viewed the treatment positively.

Lizamuddin, A., Asib, A., & Ngadiso, N. (2019). Indonesian English learners’ perception of the implementation of Mobile Assisted Language Learning in English class. Metathesis: Journal of English Language, Literature, and Teaching, 3(1), 70-77.

This study describes the perceptions of 24 L2 English university students in Indonesia regarding their use of smartphones to access unspecified MALL programs over an unspecified period of time in a pronunciation class. According to a post-treatment survey, the integration of MALL into classroom activities facilitated the opportunity for the learners to access varied English materials, try varied activities in English, as well as to communicate and interact with friends or lecturers.

Llerena, E., & Rodriguez, C. (2017). Kahoot! A digital tool for learning vocabulary in a language classroom. Revista Publicando, 4(12), 441-449.

This Ecuadorian study describes the use of an audience response system (Kahoot!) to foster the B1-level L2 English vocabulary learning of 70 university students. A control group of 35 is indicated, but no information about it is given. At the end of each vocabulary unit, once weekly for ten weeks, experimental group participants used their mobile phones to access a game-based vocabulary review via the app. The experimental group improved its scores on a post-treatment vocabulary test compared to a pre-test taken after five weeks. Students thought that playing Kahoot! improved their learning motivation and they expressed satisfaction using it.

Loewen, S., Crowther, D., Daniel D., …, & Rawal, H. (2019). Mobile-assisted language learning: A Duolingo case study. ReCALL, xx, 1-19.

This American study evaluated the effectiveness of a commercial language learning program (Duolingo) for the acquisition of ab initio-level L2 Turkish. A group of eight university graduate students and one professor used the program entirely on their own for a semester, on average 23 minutes weekly using mobile devices and 32 minutes weekly on desktops/laptops. Participants showed improvement on L2 measures at the end of the study, and results indicated a positive, moderate correlation between the amount of time spent on Duolingo and learning gains. Participants generally viewed Duolingo positively.

Loewen, S., Isbell, D., & Sporn, Z. (2020). The effectiveness of app‐based language instruction for developing receptive linguistic knowledge and oral communicative ability. Foreign Language Annals, 53(2), 209-233.

This American study evaluated the effectiveness of a mobile-accessible L2 Spanish learning program (Babbel) with 54 L1 English university students. Over three months, at least 20 min per week, the participants used Babbel entirely on their own. Most participants started the study with OPIc results of Novice-Low or Novice-Mid proficiency. By the end of the study, the majority of participants' results were at Novice-Mid. On a pre-/post-treatment OPIc speaking test comparison, 48% of the students advanced one ACTFL sublevel.  However, nearly as many participants (39%) remained at their pre-treatment level.

Looi, C-T., Wong, L-H., So, H-J., …, & Soloway, E. (2009). Anatomy of a mobilized lesson: Learning my way. Computers & Education, 53(4), 1120-1132.

This paper from Singapore is the first of two that describe the use of PDAs to teach L2 English to primary school children. The experiment lasted two hours and involved 30 pupils who took photos with PDAs around the schoolyard to exemplify newly learned prepositions. This was followed in class by the use of the PDs to draw prepositional relationships and the sharing of the sketches and photos in group discussions. It was concluded that the use of the mobile device succeeded in creating highly personalized and differentiated instruction.

Lora, J., & Agresott, L. (2019). Using Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) to Enhance 10th Graders’ Listening Skill: An Exploratory Case Study. BA thesis, University of Cordoba.

This co-authored BA thesis describes the effect of MALL upon the English listening ability of five tenth-graders of unspecified L2 English competence level in Spain. Over four weeks, participants used their smartphones, presumably in class, to undertake listening-related activities. However, no details are given about these activities. Participants scored higher on a pre-/post-treatment listening test comparison, in which discriminating between sounds was the least developed sub-skill. The statistical significance of the differences was not indicated. According to their questionnaire responses, students generally perceived the use of mobile devices in learning as a facilitator of learning.

Lu, H., Ma, X., & Huang, F. (2023). Exploring the effects of a theory-based mobile app on Chinese EFL learners' vocabulary learning achievement and memory. Sustainability, 15, 9129, 1-18.

This Chinese study evaluated the effect of a custom designed mobile-based L2 English learning app upon the vocabulary acquisition of 50 university students of unspecified English competence level. Over eight weeks, participants used their smartphones to access the app to learn 80 words taken from the CET test.  During the same time, a control group of 58, also of unspecified English competence level, learned the same vocabulary using only a paper-based word list. The experimental group significantly outscored the control on both a pre-test/immediate post-test and four-week delayed post-test comparison. So, too, student opinions about the app were very positive.

Lu, M. (2008). Effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phone. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning,24(6), 515-525.

This Taiwanese paper investigates the effectiveness of mobile phone SMS on L2 English vocabulary learning. One week, half of a group of 30 intermediate-level high school students received a printout of 14 target English/Chinese word pairs while the other half received via SMS two target word pairs twice daily. The next week the two groups swapped the way they received a second set of 14 word pairs. Vocabulary tests at the end of each week showed learning gains for all students, but no significant differences remained after a three-week delay.

Lucas, C., Almeida, X., & Loor, K. (2017). WhatsApp como herramienta de enseñanza del idioma inglés para mejorar la habilidad auditiva en los estudiantes de segundo bachillerato BGU de la Unidad Educativa Liceo Cristiano peninsular. La libertad, Provincia de Santa Elena (WhatsApp as an English teaching tool for improving the listening skill to students of second high school BGU at Unidad Educativa Liceo Cristiano Peninsular. La libertad, Provincia de Santa Elena. Ciencias Pedagógicas e Innovación, 5(2), 1-6.  [in Spanish]

This study reports the effect of using an instant messaging app (WhatsApp) upon the listening comprehension of 15 A2-level L2 English students at a high school in Ecuador. The participants used their smartphones to access the app over an unspecified time period and frequency to undertake unspecified activities with unspecified listening materials. It is claimed that the treatment resulted in significant listening ability increases of between 12% and 20%, where students who were at level A2.1 moved to level A2.2. However, no p value was calculated to substantiate the significance of these results.

Ludwig, C. (2018). Using vocabulary apps to enhance students' vocabulary knowledge. Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 9(3SI, 306-323.

This German study describes an experiment involving the use of a mobile-accessible quiz app (Socrative) for the out-of-class learning of L2 English vocabulary.  Over four weeks, 28 high school students were supposed to learn two sets of words. Each vocabulary set was organized into four multiple-choice exercises. Actual student usage of the app was very low for both word sets. Reasons students gave for not using the app were that guessing word meanings of multiple-choice exercises did not support their learning and that incoming messages and notifications aborted the app.

Luke, J., Wiharja, C. & Sidupa, C. (2018). The effectiveness level and positive values of practicing translation using mobile app DUOLINGO for Indonesian freshmen students. ACM International Conference Proceeding Series (pp. 26-29).

This conference presentation describes the effect of a language learning app (Duolingo) upon the Indonesian-English translation skills of 30 Indonesian university students of intermediate-level L2 English ability. During one trial session, using their smartphones, participants accessed the app to translate a total of 25 sentences in both directions. The majority of students scored highly on a post-test and indicated in a post-treatment survey that they found the app effective in improving their translation accuracy. In particular, they appreciated the ease of accessibility and time-flexibility offered by the app.

Luo, B-R., Lin, Y-L., Chen, N-S., & Fang, W-C. (2015). Using smartphone to facilitate English communication and willingness to communicate in a communicative language teaching classroom. In Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT), 2015 IEEE 15th International Conference (pp. 320-322). IEEE.

This study examined the effect of a smartphone-based app (Let’s Talk) upon the L2 English communication performance and willingness to communicate of 16 pairs of Taiwanese university students, of unspecified L2 English competence level, engaged during one session in information gap activities. A post-treatment test demonstrated that, compared to a matched control group of 32 students who did not use the app, Let’s Talk enhanced the learning of vocabulary and sentence structure but not comprehension. Experimental group students indicated that Let’s Talk reduced language learning anxiety, but did not increase their communicative competence or willingness to communicate.

Luo, H., & Yang, C. (2016). Using WeChat in teaching L2 Chinese: An exploratory study. Journal of Technology and Chinese Language Teaching, 7(2), 82-96.

This American paper describes the perceptions of 22 first/second year L2 Chinese college students, of unspecified L2 Chinese competence level, regarding the semester-long use of WeChat. WeChat-based activities were integrated into the curriculum and counted for 10% of the course grade. Exercises included asking/answering questions, mini-writing tasks, and mini-oral projects in pairs/small groups. According to an end-of-semester questionnaire and follow-up interviews, the WeChat project was well received by the students. Participants reported five major benefits of using WeChat: expansion of time in learning Chinese, linguistic gains, promotion of cultural learning, enhancement of learning motivation.

Luo, L. (2019). Integrated social media into mobile-assisted foreign language learning. Journal of Education, Innovation, and Communication, 1(2), 37-47.

This study, presumably undertaken in an American university, describes the same procedures as those described in greater detail in Luo, L. (2022). It evaluates the effect of a mobile-based beginner-level L2 Chinese app (iChineseExercise) used in combination with an instant messaging app (WeChat). The experiment was carried out over two consecutive semesters with two different classes of 30 students. Half of each class used the apps during the first half of the semester and the other half during the last half. In both classes, the experimental group outperformed the control on quizzes and a final exam.

Luo, L. (2022). Novel micro-learning-based mobile-assisted language app for Mandarin Chinese. Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 5(Special issue 1), 35-42.

This study evaluates the effect of a mobile-based L2 Chinese app (iChineseExercise) on the language learning of beginner-level students at an American university. The experiment was carried out over two consecutive semesters with two different groups of students, 15 in the first and 9 in the second. Participants used the app during the first half each semester while a control group of equal size did regularly assigned exercises. The language competency of students was determined by five quizzes and a midterm exam. In both cases, the experimental group outperformed the control in vocabulary acquisition and ability to create sentences.

Lye, L. (2021). Investigating the Effects of Mobile Apps on Language Learning Outcomes: A Study on Duolingo. Ph.D. thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.

This American PhD dissertation compared the learning effectiveness of two mobile-accessible L2 Spanish apps (Duolingo and LearnSmart) relative to the lexical, oral, written and overall fluencies of university students who used the apps as an integral part of their twelve-week beginning level Spanish course. LearnSmart was used by 49 participants and Duolingo by 47 in game mode and 43 in non-game mode. While students made significant progress under all three conditions in all four fluency measures, the only significant difference between the three conditions was observed for overall fluency, which favored the use of Duolingo in game mode.

Lye, L. (2022). Effect of texting on Spanish L2 vocabulary acquisition. CALICO Journal, 39(3), 326-349.

This study evaluated the effect of texting compared to journaling upon the beginner-level L2 Spanish vocabulary acquisition of students in an American university. Over a semester, in groups of 3-4, 22 students used Google Hangouts via their mobile devices to text each other in Spanish three times per week. A control group of 19 wrote three Spanish journal entries per week of equal length to the text messages. Although the experimental texting group wrote significantly less than the journaling group, it significantly outscored the control on a post-treatment vocabulary test. Moreover, student reaction to the texting treatment was overwhelmingly positive.

Lys, F. (2013). The development of advanced learner oral proficiency using iPads. Language Learning & Technology, 17(3), 94-116.

This American paper describes a nine-week project in which 13 intermediate-high/advanced-low level L2 German university students used iPads for oral practice. Participants spent on average 24 minutes per week in out-of-class Face-Time video conversations and produced eight recorded solo videos gradually increasing from one to more than seven minutes. A pre-/post-test comparison demonstrated significant improvements in time duration, word count, and syntactic complexity, though fluency decreased by about 15%. Five students received a higher final rating of overall oral performance while the remainder scored the same or slightly lower.