From the Early Church

The Catacombs

If you are in Rome, don't miss the catacombs. The sheer size and extent is amazing. 70,000 Christians were buried there. There was a special chamber for the Popes of the 2nd-3rd centuries, which is still there.

They weren't actually called 'catacombs' by the Christians themselves, but 'The Cemeteries'. It was the Pagans who called them catacombs - 'dark caves'.

The Christians didn't hide in the catacombs. Everybody knew where they were. But being outside the city walls, the Authorities usually couldn't care less. Occasionally a new Emperor would order them rounded up, and they thought martyrdom was an honour. But they prayed. One wall has scratched on it (in bad Latin!), PAULE ED PETRE PETITE PRO VICTORE - “Peter and Paul, pray for Victor!” I saw another wall with the word “PEACE” written in Greek - one letter spelt wrongly, and then written over, just like a modern schoolchild!

Eventually, burial in the Roman Catacombs became a status symbol, long after the Persecutions were over.

The priest would say Mass over one of the tombs, with a lamp on each side. Generally it would be the tomb of a martyr, hollowed out above in the form of an arch, to give room. The Sanctuary in Catholic churches built from 4th to mid-20th centuries is a direct copy of a room in the catacombs - the altar against the wall, six feet wide, with relics set into the 'altar stone' in the centre, and with a candle at each end. The words, from the Last Supper and these first gatherings before the Gospels were ever written down, are word-for-word with most of the traditional Latin Mass. It is some experience to stand there now and think on these things.

Ancient Literacy

The earliest Christians treasured everything that Our Lord had said and done. Literacy was actually much more widespread than we might think, in the first two centuries A.D., and many boys (sorry, ladies, but you know how it was) throughout the Roman Empire would have had a basic training in reading and writing the universal language of Greek, not to mention Latin. Even in Rome, Mother of the Latin language, it was 'cool' to speak Greek.

At least some Jewish boys would have been taught to read the Hebrew Scriptures, even though their own language of Aramaic was as different from Hebrew as Italian is from French.

The Old Testament had long since been translated into Greek, and many of the later books were written from the first in that language: Jesus Himself and the Apostles quote mostly from the Greek version when they quote the Old Testament. In those days, popular books were written in batches of maybe fifty copies at a time, dictated to a roomfull of scribes by one reader. There was a strict code of honour: “Remember the maxim: Stick to what is written”.

There was even a well-developed system of shorthand in widespread use. And memories were well trained in those days, when writing was still a highly skilled trade and writing materials expensive.

We have every reason to believe that the words and works of Our Lord were accurately recorded for us. Never doubt that fact when you read the New Testament: As the Benedictine Prior Dom Gueránger wrote in the 19th century: “Whilst my Beloved was speaking, my soul melted within me”. If you have not such love as this, repeat at least these words: “Speak, Lord, thy servant is listening: You have the Words of Eternal Life”.

To those who would doubt the accuracy of the Gospel record, I suggest the following thought: If it is really true that God the Father sent His Only Son into the World to save us from our sins and open the Gates of Eternal Life, at the price of His Passion and Crucifixion: does it make any sense at all to suggest that He was then so incompetent as to allow the very record of these things to be wrongly written down, and for the next two thousand years to be misled? I would add that this is the same argument as for the infallible Papacy, which guarantees that the interpretation of Holy Scripture is not falsified.

The First Manuscripts

We do not have original copies of the Gospels or Epistles. At the time of Christ, you had to be of quite high intelligence, and needed a lot of practice, to be able to read, to make sense of the page. You see it was a mass of letters all the same size and all run together. Strange as it sounds to us, they had not yet thought of Capital letters, punctuation marks, or even spaces between the words. For informal notes, people wrote with a sharpened stick on a block of wax. To erase and start over, you wiped it with the palm of your hand. For permanent work they used papyrus, which was expensive, brittle and could hardly be folded, and crumbled away after a couple of centuries. A “volume” was a long, rolled-up sheet. They were already experimenting with oblong sheets glued into a “codex” - what we think of as a book - but only a few sheets could be used for one “codex”. Also, nobody ever read silently! The first person known who achieved this remarkable feat was St Ambrose of Milan. St Augustine remarks, as if with a whistle of praise: “He actually reads without moving his lips!”

Nevertheless, a system of shorthand had been invented, and skilled scribes could take dictation at normal talking speed. Many speeches and sermons from these ancient days were preserved in this way.

The style of handwriting evolved quite rapidly, which allows us to date a manuscript within a very few years.

The Rylands Fragment

We do not have original copies of the Gospels or Epistles.

The very earliest written piece of the Gospel we have is a fragment of papyrus found preserved in the bone-dry sands of Egypt. The style of handwriting in those days was evolving quite rapidly, which allows us to date a manuscript within about thirty years.

The handwriting of our fragment dates it at 125 - 150 AD. It is from the Gospel according to St John. We know that he wrote this in his old age, about 90 AD, when the other Apostles were long dead. Our fragment, therefore, could easily have been copied from the actual original. The three earlier Gospels had covered pretty much the same material: Matthew, Mark and Luke wrote very matter-of-factly, with a minimum of commentary. John's disciples came to him in his old age and said, “Master, tell us more!” John fills in many things not previously mentioned, and includes long passages reflecting on the words of Our Lord. He writes at great length about the Last Supper, and of Our Lord's interview with Pontius Pilate on Good Friday.

We could say that it was mere chance, or randomness, that decided which passage would be preserved for us in those desert sands; but there is no such thing as Chance in God's wise Providence. What we read is this, in clearly legible Greek capital letters:

“For this I was born, and for this I am come into the World, to bear witness to the Truth. All who are of the Truth hear My Voice”.

These words were spoken to Pontius Pilate, but they have resonated down the ages.

The scrap of papyrus is now on display in the Rylands Library, Manchester, England.

Disciplina Arcani

The earliest Christians treasured everything that Our Lord had said and done. Matthew, the former tax-collector, was first to write down a long and detailed account of His words and actions, about eight years after the Ascension. There were probably many other written pieces in circulation in the earliest years, but the status and authority of the Four Gospels, guaranteed by the apostles themselves and their nominated successors, ousted the others. Various letters sent by the apostles to particular communities - churches - were also widely copied and circulated.

A different approach was taken to the actual details of worship. Strange as it sounds to us now, it was strictly forbidden to reveal, or even to write down, the Mysteries of the Faith, including the words and actions of the Mass and the other Sacraments. This was to prevent their being mocked of profaned by unbelievers, in obedience to Our Lord’s words: “Do not cast your pearls before swine.”

Those preparing for admission to the church were sent out after the reading of the Gospel. Only the Baptised were allowed to remain for the Sacred mysteries. The words of the Creed were not taught to the catechumens until eight days before their baptism. The Lord’s prayer was always spoken in secret. This tradition is continued down to the present day among priests and religious who follow the traditional Prayer of the Church: the Our Father is said silently until the final phrase - a remarkable link with these earliest days.

There are many references in the literature to this practice.

When the Emperor Constantine adopted Christianity as the State religion of the Roman Empire in the fourth Century, the Christians were slow to change their ways, and the “discipline of the secret” was kept for another century or more. But the Missal was now for the first time written down from the carefully-treasured oral tradition.

In the Traditional Liturgy (the Old Latin Mass) the first part of the Mass, up to the Nicene Creed, is known as 'The Mass of the Catechumens' and the rest of the Mass, from the Offertory to the end, is 'The Mass of the Faithful'. This way of speaking preserves the memory of the time when the unbaptised were required to leave the church at this point.

The Writing of the Gospels

The Apostles set out - a handful of men to “teach all nations”. Their first teaching was oral. The Apostles based their authority on Our Lord’s command to ‘teach all nations’. When preaching to a Jewish community, they proved from the Scriptures - the Old Testament - that Jesus was the long-awaited Messiah. To pagans, Paul simply preached the story of Our Lord’s life death and resurrection. As we see from the Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles, and from later Church history, the Christian preachers invoked the unbroken traditions from the days of Christ. They placed the eyewitness authority and word-of-mouth teaching of the apostles on the same level as the written word.

S.Jerome tells us that the first to write a Gospel was Matthew the tax-collector, writing about 8 years after the Ascension. He wrote in Hebrew, for Jewish converts, and refers often to the Prophecies that Our Lord fulfilled. He was soon translated into Greek, then the universal language, and we have no copies of the Hebrew original.

Next was Mark, Peter’s secretary. He wrote down accurately, but not in order, the vivid preaching of Peter. Mark’s Gospel has more vivid descriptions than Matthew. Somebody then sorted his collection into the same order as Matthew. Mark leaves the long discourses of Jesus to Matthew.

Later Luke, the physician and companion of Paul, wrote “an ordered account” in excellent Greek, for the Gentiles. There were already many unauthorised preachers and written accounts in circulation, and Luke is setting the record straight.

At the end of the first century John wrote his Gospel, supplementing and reflecting on Our Lord’s life, before the last of the eyewitnesses had died. “We touched Him with our own hands...And we saw His Glory...full of Grace and Truth” (1Jn:1; Jn 1:14).

The Epistle of Clement

During the First and Second centuries the Church spread quietly. The Persecutions could be trerribly cruel but they were surprisingly haphazard. From the Pagan point of view, the Christians were exposing the Empire to the anger of the gods. What could be wrong with sacrificing to the other gods as well, like everybody else?

Paul wrote, “We bear a treasure in earthen vessels”. Human Nature was uplifted by the Gospel, but the Christians were still all too human. In 96AD, a faction of the Corinthians expelled their priests [our English word “priest” is simply a worn down version of the Greek “presbyteros”, which became “prestre”, “preost” then “priest”] and installed their own candidates. Although the Apostle John was still alive on the island of Patmos, the other Corinthians appealed to Rome, to Clement, fourth in line from Peter.

Clement wrote an epistle to the Corinthians, firstly actually apologising for his delay in responding, hinting at the Persecutions. He then immediately launches into a blistering attack on “the detestable schism with has been referred to us”. He praises the Corinthians for their past glories. He then condemns those who had flouted rightful authority, speaks at length of the necessity for right order, directs them to re-instate the lawful priests, and remarks – ever so gently, but leaving no doubt that he is not joking – that he is sending two trusted delegates, Claudius Ephebus and Valerius Bito, to ensure that all is done, and to report back “speedily” to Rome: “that they may the sooner announce to us the peace and harmony we so earnestly desire and long for [among you], and that we may the more quickly rejoice over the good order re-established among you. The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you …”

Although written within the very lifetime of the Apostle John, the authoritative tone of the fourth Pope is unmistakable.

Only a fragment of this Epistle was known in the Sixteenth Century, the time of the Reformation. The complete manuscript was discovered a century or so later. No competent scholar has doubted its authenticity. I respectfully submit that it categorically disproves the notion that each Christian community was autonomous.

The Generation after the Apostles

The best years of the Roman Empire were from the time of Christ, under the great Emperor Augustus, until the end of the Second Century. During the Second Century the Catholic Church spread quietly, mainly among the poorer classes of the many cities. The ordinary citizen tried to keep the gods satisfied with the correct rituals. But the gods had nothing to teach him about right conduct. The Christians, also called Catholics since the end of the First Century, were well known by the end of the Second Century as the only organisation of their kind in the Empire. They were by no means an informal scattering of independent communities, but a tight organisation with a strict code of morals and discipline, and prepared to expel those who refused to comply. From time to time an Emperor would realise that this organisation had the potential to overthrow the whole pagan Roman world from within, and a persecution would break out. By an irony of history, the very Emperors who were ablest, while they remained Pagan, led the most thorough persecutions. Thus good men would do evil things because of their false beliefs. . But “The blood of martyrs is the seed of the Church”. The more Christians were sent to the arena, the more converts they made. The pagans were astonished. “These Christians – see how they love one another!”

The first we know who used the word “Catholic” was Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, installed by Peter before he left for Rome.

Saint Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch

Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, was thrown to the wild beasts between 98 and 117AD. Consecrated by S. Peter himself, he undoubtedly heard the Apostles with his own ears. He is said to have been the very child that Our Lord placed in the midst saying, “Unless ye become like this child you shall not enter the Kingdom”. His testimony, when Christ and the Apostles were still a living memory, is of the highest importance. Even as early as this, “the whole system of Catholic doctrine may be discovered, at least in outline, not to say in parts filled up, in the course of his epistles”.

Ignatius wrote of the Catholic Church (he was the first to use this word):

“See that ye all follow the bishop, even as Jesus Christ does the Father, and the institution of priests as ye would the apostles; and reverence the deacons, as being the institution of God. Let no man do anything connected with the Church without the bishop. Let that be deemed a proper Eucharist, which is[administered] either by the bishop, or by one to whom he has entrusted it. Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church.

I therefore, yet not I, but the love of Jesus Christ, entreat you that ye use Christian nourishment only, and abstain from herbage of a different kind; I mean heresy. For ‘they’ mix up Jesus Christ with their own poison, speaking things which are unworthy of credit, like those who administer a deadly drug in sweet wine ... leading to ... death.

Be on your guard, therefore, against such persons. [Be] not puffed up, but continue in intimate union with Jesus Christ our God, and the bishop, and the enactments of the apostles.”

Papias

Bishop Papias of Hierapolis (in modern Turkey, but then a Greek-speaking community) was called by St. Irenaeus "a hearer of John, and companion of Polycarp, a man of old time". He wrote a work in five books, Logion Kyriakon Exegesis (An Explanation of the Accounts of The Lord). Unfortunately, the original is long lost, but we have many quotations from this work in many other authors. He is counted as an Apostolic Father. No account of his life has survived. He was obviously writing in his old age, some time between the years 115 and 140AD.

Of importance for us is the testimony he gives about how he received the Gospel. The 'Bible-Only' Protestants believe that the New Testament was written down by the Apostles and passed down to the various Christian communities, who were completely independent of each other. Each group, after the death of the Apostles, looked to the written word of Scripture alone as the source of the Faith. They are trying to model their own organisation on this pattern. But the actual historical record tells another story. Papias, who lived through the first generation to see the death of the last apostle, writes:

I will not hesitate to add also for you, to my Exegesis, what I formerly learned with care from the Presbyters and have carefully stored in memory, giving assurance of its truth. For I did not take pleasure, as the many do, in those who speak much; but in those who teach what is true: nor in those who relate foreign precepts, but in those who relate the precepts which were given by the Lord to the Faith and came down from the Truth itself. And also if any follower of the Presbyters happened to come, I would inquire for the sayings of the Presbyters, what Andrew said, or what Peter said, or what Philip or what Thomas or James or what John or Matthew or any other of the Lord's disciples, and for the things which other of the Lord's disciples, and for the things which Aristion and the Presbyter John, the disciples of the Lord, were saying (The Greek words here mean that John, unlike the other Apostles, was still alive at the time). For I considered that I should not get so much advantage from matter in books as from the voice which yet lives and remains.

Notice that Papias is not saying that he spoke to the Apostles (except John) personally, but that he spoke to those who had done so, before his own time. And he most definitely does not state that he opened the Bible, read it, and the Holy Spirit showed him how to interpret it.

Roman Gods and the Son of God

The Romans had a genius for Law and Organisation, and they thought big! If they built a door to an important building, they built it fifty feet high. If they made a road, they built it so well, that it was still usable more than a thousand years later. But they felt that there were Powers greater than man, and they tried to give them their due. They all knew that “Pride comes before a fall” and believed that the Powers will have their revenge on men who get above themselves. And the Romans had become the Masters of the world. They said, “because we have bowed to the gods, therefore we rule the earth.” They adopted the Greek myths and rituals, and by the First century were accepting other cults from Asia. The more gods they pleased, the better their luck would be, they reasoned. They believed they had been selected by the Powers “to protect the humble, and to war down the proud”.

And now came people preaching that only their own God was to be worshipped. What would happen if, after all the favours the Romans had received, they turned against the other gods? And these newcomers were no ordinary sect. The devotees of the other Mystery Cults were quite happy to honour the other gods as well; the Jews were a highly intelligent race, useful in commerce who kept to themselves and had not been giving trouble; but these newcomers had a tight organisation, with duly-elected officers and priests, secret rituals that had something to do with eating the flesh of their god (and possibly of a Child), a definite list of things to believe and do, and were prepared to expel - to excommunicate - anyone who broke ranks.

The Ancient Romans were aware that “there is more to life than meets the eye”. They felt, at very special moments, especially births, marriages and deaths, but also other times, that there is an Unseen Something - or Somebody - in the story as well. What makes the crop spring from the seed? What keeps the amazing sun shining? What are those cool, remote stars? The Romans gave names to these Unseen Powers. They were not imaginative like the Greeks, and did not tell stories about the gods. But they felt instinctively that there were Powers greater than man, and they tried to give them their due. They all knew that “Pride comes before a fall” and believed that the Powers will have their revenge on men who get above themselves. And the Romans had become the Masters of the world. They said, “because we have bowed to the gods, therefore we rule the earth.” When they got to know the Greeks, they adopted their myths and rituals, and by the First century were accepting other cults from Asia. The more gods they pleased, the better their luck would be, they reasoned.

Living Memory – How long is it?

Let us consider what is meant by “Within Living Memory”. It embraces a longer stretch of time than we might think at first glance.

At the time of Christ, the rate of infant mortality was very high, as was the tragic death of the mother in childbirth. Very many children died before reaching maturity. And throughout life, there were infectious diseases and other incidents which ensured that only a minority lived to the Biblical 'threescore years and ten' 'or eighty if he is strong'. This left the Average Life expectancy at about 25. Yet in the community there were always people of sound mind aged 75 or 80. These people would have memories of their youth; they would have clear recollections of things seen and heard when they were twenty years old – and even earlier. But let us take a conservative estimate. They would clearly remember a memorable event that happened 60 years before. And one of those events could well be, to have spoken with one who, at that time, was himself 75 or 80 years old. This person in his turn could remember back 60 years. Thus it would be possible to speak to a senior citizen who could relate to you their clear memory of hearing about events that happened one hundred and twenty years previously. Add to this the well-established fact that, before universal literacy taught us different skills, people in general had well-trained memories, it will be seen that “Living Memory” extended back 120 years and more. Thus the Crucifixion, Resurrection, and Mission of the Apostles, generally dated at 33AD, would still be within “Living Memory” in 150 AD.

St Polycarp

St Polycarp was the Bishop of Smyrna at the beginning of the Second Century, “receiv[ing] his appointment in Asia from the Apostles” as we learn from his contemporary St. Irenaeus of Lyons. These records constitute historical proof that the Apostolic Succession of bishops does really derive in unbroken line from the Apostles, and was not some later invention, as opponents of the Catholic Church are wont to claim.

The account of his martyrdom is contained in an Epistle from the Church at Smyrna, and although the earliest copy we have is from the Fourth Century, the various scribes have been meticulous in tracing the history of transmission, to establish that it is an authentic account:

[The date of the martyrdom]

“Now, the blessed Polycarp suffered martyrdom on the second day of the month Xanthicus just begun, the seventh day before the Kalends of May, on the great Sabbath, at the eighth hour. He was taken by Herod, Philip the Trallian being high priest, Statius Quadratus being proconsul, but Jesus Christ being King for ever, to whom be glory, honour, majesty, and an everlasting throne, from generation to generation. Amen.” [this dates it at 155-6 AD; 160 at the latest.]

[History of transmission]

These things were transcribed by Caius from the copy of Irenæus – who was a disciple of Polycarp. Caius had himself been intimate with Irenæus. And I Socrates transcribed them at Corinth from the copy of Caius. Grace be with you all.

And I again, Pionius, wrote them from the previously written copy, having carefully searched into them, and the blessed Polycarp having manifested them to me through a revelation, even as I shall show in what follows. I have collected these things, when they had almost faded away through the lapse of time, that the Lord Jesus Christ may also gather me along with His elect into His heavenly kingdom, to whom, with the Father and the Holy Spirit, be glory for ever and ever. Amen.”

Polycarp thus represents a most important link with the Age of the Apostles. Thanks to S. John, who lived to a very advanced age, there was one apostle still living at the very beginning of the Second Century. Saint Polycarp lived to be 86, hence it was still possible halfway through the Second Century to learn by word of mouth what the Apostles taught, from those who had heard this teaching with their own ears from the Apostles themselves. This period is known as the Sub-Apostolic Age. S. Polycarp was far from the only such witness, but it is of him that we have a detailed account, the Epistle from Smyrna normally known as “The Martyrdom of Polycarp” which was very widely circulated, and the account has come down to us in several manuscripts that correspond well with each other, demonstrating their fidelity to source.

In Rome the Apostolic Age ended about A.D. 67 with the martyrdom of Ss. Peter and Paul, and the Sub-Apostolic Age about a quarter of a century later when St. Clement, “who had seen the blessed Apostles”, died. In Asia, on the other hand, the Apostolic Age lingered on till St. John died about A.D. 100; and the sub-Apostolic Age till 155, when St. Polycarp was martyred in Rome.

Of Polycarp St. Irenaeus says, “he was not only taught by the Apostles, and lived in familiar intercourse with many that had seen Christ, but also received his appointment in Asia from the Apostles as Bishop in the Church of Smyrna”. St. Irenaeus then goes on to speak of his own personal acquaintance with Polycarp, his martyrdom, [full text at http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0102.htm ] and his visit to Rome, where he converted many heretics. He then continues,

“There are those who heard him tell how John, the disciple of the Lord, when he went to take a bath in Ephesus, and saw Cerinthus within, rushed away from the room without bathing, with the words 'Let us flee lest the room should fall in, for Cerinthus, the enemy of the truth, is within'.

Yea, and Polycarp himself, also, when on one occasion Marcion [a notorious heretic with a large following] confronted him and said 'Recognise us', replied, 'Ay, ay, I recognise the first-born of Satan' “.

Irenaeus of Lyons

Irenaeus was born in “Asia” (a district in modern Turkey, then a Greek-speaking Roman province), in the first half of the second century. It is certain that, while still very young, Irenaeus had seen and heard the holy Bishop Polycarp (died 155AD) at Smyrna – also in modern Turkey. Irenaeus was a priest of the Church of Lyons during the persecution of Marcus Aurelius. The latter is counted by historians as one of 'The Five Good Emperors'. His rule was wise and just on the secular level, but being an unconverted Pagan he was concerned that Christianity would anger the gods, who would punish Rome. Paradoxically, it was the best and most thorough Pagan Roman Emperors who persecuted the early Church most vigorously. The clergy of Lyon, many of whom were suffering imprisonment for the Faith, sent him to Rome with a letter to Pope Eleutherius concerning Montanism, a heresy that featured its adherents receiving visions in a state of ecstatic trance. These visions allegedly provided additional revelations to that already received. In its refutation of Montanism, the Church clarified the issue that Revelation as such, had ceased with the death of the last Apostle. Irenaeus played an important part in this task.

During the religious peace which followed the persecution of Marcus Aurelius, Irenaeus, now bishop of Lyons, wrote at length against the Gnostic heresy which was then widespread and growing. Gnosticism was founded on the idea that there was a 'Secret Doctrine' of Christ for the Chosen Few, alongside a 'simplified version' for the Lower Orders. This is a thought very appealing to a certain kind of mind, that loves to be one of the superior Inner Ring – indeed it is one of the chief attractions of modern Freemasonry. Gnosticism had a large number of variant versions (this has always been typical of heresies down the ages, up to and including Protestantism). The most important of his writings to have survived is his “Adversus Haereses” (”Against the Heresies”). By refuting the heresies of his day, Irenaeus as a side-effect has preserved for us the true teaching of the Church as this was understood in his time. It is seen to be identical with the teachings of the Catholic Church even to the present day. In his writings, Irenaeus stressed that his teachings were of one who had heard St. Polycarp, the disciple of St. John, and who, in a manner, belonged to the Apostolic Age. The pivotal points he made included: the origin of the Gospel according to St. John, the Holy Eucharist, and the primacy of the Roman Church.

Has these things been more widely known in the Sixteenth Century, perhaps the wholesale Protestant rejection of the Catholic Church – as opposed to the reform of real abuses – would never have reached the level it did.

We have no reliable information about the date or manner of his death, but he seems not to have been martyred.

S. Justin Martyr

Justin, traditionally known as St Justin Martyr, lived approximately 100 - 165 AD. He was born a Pagan but lived in a district where there were many Jews. He was always deeply interested in philosophy and tells us that he studied many of the Pagan philosophies that were current at the time, going from one philosopher to the next, but never fully satisfied with what they had to say. Eventually he became convinced of the Christian Gospel. After this he began wandering the world, trying to convert educated pagans. He spent a considerable time in Rome, and by addressing his famous 'Apologies' (=Defence) to the two Roman emperors of his time he made a vigorous attempt to convert them. (The Greek word 'Apologéomai' means 'To speak in defence', not 'to apologise'). It was a tragedy that he failed in this attempt; Marcus Aurelius was the last of 'The Five Good Emperors' of the Second Century, and we can only guess what this wonderfully gifted man would have made of the world if he had become a Christian: S. Jerome later commented that the Empire would never have fallen if the Emperors had converted in time.

But eventually Justin was denounced to the Roman Prefect as one trying to undermine the stability of the State, condemned to death and martyred.

His writings are important for providing the first attempt to integrate the Gospel with Greek philosophy. The Ancient Hebrews were fervent, and the best of them truly loved God, but they were not an intellectual people. The Greek civilisation, on the other hand, was certainly the most fully intellectual in the world. Many Greeks reacted with scorn and contempt to the Jews and Christians, while many of the latter were disgusted at the moral decadence of the Greeks and indeed of the pagan Empire. It was the great achievement of the Catholic Church to take what was best and nearest the truth in Pagan civilisation and 'baptise' it, by uniting the two movements into one coherent whole. Justin Martyr was the first to begin this process.

In Justin's 'Major Apology', addressed to the Roman emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, he tries to explain that the Christians are no atheists, neither are they hostile to the Roman State. He then explains that both Christianity and the philosophy of Plato look to an eternal, transcendent God. Man is made in the Image of God, and therefore his mind is able to understand basic truths regarding the world: time, creation, freedom, the affinity between the human soul and the Spirit of God, and the recognition of good and evil.

Justin explains that Jesus Christ is the incarnation of the entire divine 'logos' (The 'Word' made Flesh) and thus contains all these truths, whereas even the greatest of the pagan philosophers had only traces of truth. This is why Christ came into the world: to teach men the Truth and save them from the power of demons.

The second part of the Apology contains vivid descriptions of Baptism and the manner of celebrating the Eucharist. This is the first written account of the rituals that soon afterward were never written down for fear of falling into pagan hands. They are recognisably Catholic.

Justin's other work, The Dialogue with Trypho, is set as a discussion between himself and a learned Jew named Trypho (apparently from the Greek word meaning 'to give oneself insolent airs'). Justin attempts to show that a new convenant has superseded the old covenant of God with the Jewish people; that Jesus is both the Messiah announced by the Old Testament prophets and the Eternal Word revealed in the Scriptures; and that the Gentiles have been chosen to replace Israel as God's chosen people.

Justin also serves as a crucial witness to the status of the 2nd-century New Testament, mentioning the first three Gospels (calling them 'the memoirs of the Apostles') and quoting from the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles of S. Paul and the First Epistle of S. Peter.

His Feast Day is on 1 June.

The Persecutions

The best years of the Roman Empire were from the time of Christ, under the great Emperor Augustus, until the end of the Second Century. During the Second Century the Catholic Church spread quietly, mainly among the poorer classes of the many cities. The various pagan cults were becoming merged into one general hodge-podge. The Roman Citizen was expected to keep the gods satisfied with the correct rituals. For most, the gods had nothing to say about right conduct beyond this. But it was thought a serious matter to negelect the sacrifice to the gods, who ruled the fate of the empire. After the Jewish Temple was destroyed, forty years after the Crucifixion, the surviving Jews kept to themselves in scattered communities over the known world. The Christians, also called Catholics (both words being coined in the late first Century) were by no means an informal scattering of independent communities, but had a tight organisation with a strict code of morals and discipline, and prepared to expel those who refused to comply. they were well known by the end of the Second Century as the only organisation of its kind in the empire. From time to time an Emperor would realise that this organisation had the potential to overthrow the whole pagan roman world from within, and a persecution would break out.

During the Third Century the Roman Legions, which had been necessary to keep the borders safe and to maintain order, took over control of the whole empire. Local governors were very often military man of high rank. The legions began to nominate the next emperor, and chaos reigned for nearly a full century: the time of the Barrack-Room Emperors. The reign of an emperor was frighteningly short, but there was never a shortage of ambitious men willing to try for the Purple. the chaos was finally ended by Emperor Diocletan, who re-organised the apparatus of the Empire, removing the Military from political power, and also initiating the worst Persecution the Christians had yet endured.

Christian Soldiers in the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire did not support a police force separate from the Army. Discipline was ruthless but not vindictive. A career in the Army was an honourable profession. When the soldiers asked John the Baptist, “What should we do?” he did not tell them to leave the army, but simply to avoid extortion and be content with their pay.

Things became more complicated as the emperors began to demand divine honours. The old pagan religion was nothing like as thoroughly well worked out as was Christian theology by The Church. There was nothing very strange about an important personage being elevated among the gods. Even in this life, the reigning emperor was thought of as having a Power to help him – the “Genius” or Guiding Spirit of the Emperor. Soldiers were expected, as a matter of course, to offer sacrifices to The Genius of the Emperor. When Christian soldiers refused to do this, they were immediately accused of being enemies of the State, as they were likely to draw down the anger of the gods.

The Forty Martyrs of Armenia are commemorated on their Feast Day of March 10th. Refusing to sacrifice to the emperor, these soldiers of an Armenian Legion were cruelly frozen to death overnight on a frozen lake. But their story is worth a separate account in these pages.

The Forty Martyrs of Armenia

(In preparation)

The Ending of the Persecutions: Churches, Basilicas and Altars

Under Pope St. Sylvester I, 33rd in line from S. Peter, and enjoying one of the longest of all pontificates – 21 years, the Church emerged at last from the catacombs, and the public exaltation of Christ began immediately. The Emperor donated to the Church the building inherited by the Emperors since the time of Nero in the first century. It was re-named the Basilica of the Saviour, on the Lateran Hill, one of the ancient Seven Hills of Rome. Commonly known as the Lateran Basilica, it is standing to this day and was the residence of the Popes down to the end of the Middle Ages.

Pope Sylvester decreed that henceforth the altar must always be made of marble. If the altar could not be of marble, it was forbidden to celebrate the Mass at all. Previously, when the Mass was offered in a private home it was probably celebrated on a table, while in the catacombs it was held over the grave of one of the martyrs, with a semicircle carved above it to make room for the priest. Now the altars were to be always of marble, and the layout of the church was to be modelled after the catacombs: the altar against the far wall of the church, facing East (to Jerusalem) with the relics of a martyr in the centre. The wooden altar used by S. Peter was enclosed in the marble altar of S. John Lateran, and is still there. Strictly speaking, only the Pope should offer Mass on this altar. The table of the Last Supper is now hung in honour on the wall of the Basilica of S. John Lateran (see last month), but is no longer used for Mass. In the later Middle Ages, as a concession, the law was modified to permit a wooden altar, but always with an Altar Stone in the centre containing relics of a saint. Thus the traditions of the catacombs are preserved, while using the most beautiful materials to the glory of God.

The Ending of the Persecutions: The Holy Grail

The chalice used at the Last Supper was by no means a simple pottery beaker. The cup is carved out of a single piece of semi-precious agate, and was undoubtedly a family heirloom, treasured down the centuries by a family who traced their descent from King David on both sides (Mt 1:6; Luke 1:27). It was taken to Rome and used used by the popes, from Peter down, for centuries. Notice the difference in the words of the Consecration at Mass: in the other main cities, founded by other apostles, the words of the Consecration to this day are: “… taking the chalice into his Holy and Venerable Hands”; but in Rome, the pope would say “taking this chalice into His Holy and Venerable Hands” while holding the actual chalice of the Last Supper. These words were adopted wherever the Roman Use was followed (each major city had its own ritual), and are the words of the Traditional (Old Latin) liturgy to this day. A base was made from a single piece of chalcedony, joined by a midsection with side hands of gold encrusted with precious gems, producing the familiar shape of the chalice as used in the Roman Rite of Mass, but these were added in the early Middle Ages.

Rome had suffered badly from the barbarian invasions, and in 258 AD Pope St Sixtus II, 24th in line from Peter, decided to send the chalice for safekeeping to Spain, which at the time was in a more settled state. After many adventures – notably to protect it from the Moors – it ended up in Valencia. In 1982 Pope John Paul II celebrated Mass with this chalice in Valencia – the first pope to do so for 1724 years. This is the Chalice known to history as the Holy Grail. A perfect replica was crafted and donated to Pope John Paul and his successors at this time, but the Basilica at Valencia has retained its treasure of the original Holy Grail, and the Vatican has respected Valencia’s right to keep the original.

The Ending of the Persecutions: The Nicene Creed.

The early Christians were not afraid to die for their Faith, but they had to be prudent, and worked quietly. Each community treasured the manuscripts passed down to them from Apostolic times (although there was no settled list of Scriptural books, let alone a complete volume of Scripture, for the first four centuries – an historical certainty that should give us pause for thought). In contrast, it was actually forbidden to write down the details of worship, for fear of their falling into the hands of the pagans (the famous “Disciplina Arcani”), but they were passed down by memory and by the actual practice of the community, especially the “Breaking of the Bread” (also known as “the Sacrifice”) and the other Sacraments. These practices were authenticated in each community through tracing an unbroken tradition from one of the Apostles.

The conversion of the Emperor Constantine in the Fourth Century caused an immediate change. The Church emerged from the catacombs. The pope fortunate to see these things was Pope St. Sylvester I, 33rd in line from S. Peter, and enjoying one of the longest of all pontificates – 21 years.

It was under Sylvester that the public exaltation of Christ began. One of the first priorities was to hold a General Council – the first since the Council of Jerusalem described in the Acts of the Apostles (Ch.15). 318 bishops attended this Council of Nicaea (in modern Turkey), and Constantine provided the full resources of the Empire to allow the transport and accommodation of the bishops. The greatest achievement of this Council was the formulation of the Nicene Creed, on the 19th of June, 325 AD. Later the Council of Constantinople added to the Nicene Creed, making more explicit the nature of the Holy Spirit ‘who proceeds from the Father and the Son’. The expanded form of the Nicene Creed is repeated at Mass every Sunday to this day.

First Ecumenical Council: Nicaea I (325)

The Council of Nicaea was attended by 318 bishops and lasted two months and twelve days. Pope Sylvester was represented by his legate, Bishop Hosius of Cordova. The Emperor Constantine was also present.

It was this council that formulated The Creed (Symbolum) of Nicaea, defining that Christ is True God – of one substance (homoousios) with the Father – and the fixing of the date for keeping Easter (which had been hotly disputed).

Second Ecumenical Council: Constantinople I (381)

The First General Council of Constantinople, under Pope Damasus and the Emperor Theodosius I, was attended by 150 bishops. It was directed against the followers of Macedonius, who impugned the Divinity of the Holy Ghost.

This council added to the Nicene Creed the clauses referring to the Holy Ghost “who is adored and glorified” (thus certifying that the Holy Spirit is a Divine Person), and “who has spoken through the prophets” (qui simul adoratur) plus all that follows to the end. Strictly speaking, therefore, the Creed we say at Mass should be called the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed.

Third Ecumenical Council: Ephesus (431)

The Council of Ephesus, of more than 200 bishops, presided over by St. Cyril of Alexandria representing Pope Celestine I:–

Defined the true personal unity of Christ, and declared Mary the Mother of God (theotokos) against Nestorius, Bishop of Constantinople, who had declared that Christ was a perfect human, but could not be said to be God, and therefore that Mary was not “The Mother of God”. This council renewed the condemnation of Pelagius who had taught that the first movement toward God can come from Man; the Catholic teaching is that the very first impulse must be God’s Grace. This is called pre-venient Grace: “the Grace that comes first”.

God will respect our Free Will to accept or reject this Grace. Because God leaves us Free Will, and has ‘predestined’ nobody to Hell, all those in Hell have no option but to say, ‘mea culpa’ – ‘through my own fault’.

Fourth Ecumenical Council: Chalcedon (451)

The Council of Chalcedon was one of the pivotal Councils in the history of the Church. It was held under Pope Leo the Great and assembled by order of the Emperor Marcian after an Arian-dominated Council, conducted under disgraceful circumstances, that was castigated as ‘latrocínium’ – ‘The council of Robbers’ – and declared null by the Pope.

In those Days of Faith the Emperor did not presume to dictate theological issues to the assembled bishops, but it was universally taken for granted that there was one Objective Truth about spiritual things, upon which society must be based. Hence it was no extraaordinary thing for an Ecumenical Council to be convened by the Emperor, who was charged with maintaining the standards of public life.

At Chalcedon, 150 bishops defined the two natures (Divine and Human) in Christ against Eutyches, who was excommunicated. With the decrees of Chalcedon the doctrine of the Blessed Trinity was formulated definitively, once and for all.

The Arian Crisis

The Arians denied that Christ was the Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father. He was the most excellent creation of God the Father, but not actually God Himself. As always happens, there were innumerable variations on what they actually believed. ‘There is only one Catholic Faith, but there are as many heresies as there are heretics.’ Perhaps its appeal came from the way it sidestepped the Mysteries of the Faith, including that of Blessed Trinity. Many heresies down the Ages have been successful for a time by rejecting the Mysteries for some plausible substitute that can be comprehended by the human mind. They all fail in the end, because only the True Faith has the staying power to surmount all obstacles, not to mention the promise of Christ that the Gates of Hell will not prevail. Yet in its heyday Arianism swept the world. Most significantly – and ominously – the Roman Army, which by then was mostly manned by half barbarian Goths and Germans, went solidly Arian. The simplified version of Christianity appealed to these untutored minds. The Emperors and their courts likewise went back into the Arian heresy. Although denounced by a full Church Council, the Arians used their influence in the Emperor’s Court to continue to spread the heresy. The vast majority of bishops followed suit, mostly out of the desire to be seen favourably by the Emperor. Then, as S. Jerome writes, “The World awoke and groaned in amazement at finding itself Arian.” Nearly all the other bishops turned against the faithful Athanasius – it was ‘Athanasius contra mundum’ – ‘Athanasius against the World’. He walked into other bishops’ dioceses, ordained new, fully Catholic priests (which he was not supposed to do) and his follower, Bp Eusebius, went into the major city of Alexandria, announced the bishop deposed, and consecrated a new bishop. [This was far more drastic than anything Archb. Lefebvre ever did.] Athanasius was excommunnicated four times, once with the signature of Pope Liberius – who was the first of all the popes not to be canonised after his death. Athanasius simply ignored this and kept on working. In the end he was canonised.

You can read more about all this in ‘The Annals of the Centuries’.

Thus the Catholic Church demonstrated, during this terrible crisis, the resilience that had been prophetically built into her organisation by Christ, her founder. Yet it has been said that, after the Arian Crisis, the Church had lost her Springtime Freshness. There were other victories, with the salvation of innumerable souls, but an innocence has been lost that can never again be regained. Let us offer an Our Father and Glory Be in consolation to the Blessed Trinity for this loss.

With the conclusion of the Arian Schism it may be said that the days of The Early Church were now over. The next period may appropriately be named “The Ages of Faith”.