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surgery, particularly for adolescent girls who see celebrities as role models. This idea is consistent with research which showed that celebrity worship is predictive of the desire of CS (Maltby & Day, 2011). Future research should try to identify further factors which may predict adolescent girls’ interest in CS, as well as trait characteristics which may make girls more susceptible to negative CS media effects. RUNNING HEAD: Adolescents’ views on cosmetic surgery 17 These findings provide an interesting initial picture of adolescent girls’ attitudes towards CS. For preliminary research such as this, focus groups are ideal for sampling views from a large number of girls, exploring social norms and the co-construction of views (Wilkinson, 1998). However, focus groups can involve self-presentation biases, and the influence of peers opinions can lead to conformity of views. Future studies should therefore replicate and extend this research through using individual interviews or quantitative self-report methods. Nonetheless, this study provides a good preliminary basis for us to further understand adolescent girls’ attitudes to CS. Future research extending this work in other sociodemographic groups, such as ethnic minority groups or girls of a younger age, would be useful to see whether results can be generalised. In sum, our findings suggest adolescent girls have sophisticated attitudes and perceptions of CS. Without being against CS, girls expressed concerns about the risks associated with having surgery, the way it is portrayed within the media and how this may affect people, particularly their peers. Nonetheless, their attitudes towards having CS were complex, and girls thought the majority of their peers would consider undergoing it. The greatest perceived barrier was cost rather than risks associated with surgery. This suggests consideration of CS maybe normal in adolescent girls and the media may play a significant role in normalising and glamorising such surgery. Further research is needed to examine the impact of CS media on girls and which factors determine whether girls choose to have CS or not. RUNNING HEAD: Adolescents’ views on cosmetic surgery 18 Acknowledgements We would like to thank all participants for openly sharing their views on cosmetic surgery. Special thanks to Lizzie Gauntlett at Totton College for facilitating the data collection process. RUNNING HEAD: Adolescents’ views on cosmetic surgery 19 References American Society for Plastic Surgeons (2004, March 30). New Reality TV Programs Created Unhealthy, Unrealistic Expectations of Plastic Surgery. Retrieved from: Ad “Clampdown”. BBC News. Retrieved from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health Cosmetic Surgery in the United States: Its Past and Present Richard L. Dolsky, MD Guest Editor 109 Cosmetic, or aesthetic, surgery represents a universal human desire to maintain or restore normal appearance or to enhance it toward an aesthetic ideal. The goal may be to return an abnormal or unsightly feature to normal or to produce a younger, more beautiful appearance. Although this desire is a fundamental human characteristic, surgeons have been able to address it predictably and safely only within the last century. The American Academy of Cosmetic Surgery and the American Society of Liposuction Surgery are the largest multidisciplinary societies in the United States that represent physicians concerned with the improvement of human appearance. These bodies welcome physicians of all medical and surgical specialties who have the desire to learn, and they are open to the ideas of all those who wish to teach. This paper offers a broad historical survey of developments in the field of cosmetic surgery. Its thesis is that the dramatic medical and technical progress of cosmetic surgery in the 20th century has been made possible by contributions from many medical specialties. The history of cosmetic surgery has often been characterized by doctrinal disputes (eg, the legitimacy of aesthetic surgery as opposed to reconstructive surgery) and by interspecialty conflicts. Yet as the century comes to a close, practitioners in varying specialties have made substantial progress in moving beyond these limiting distinctions. Reconstructive surgery can be traced to the Indian and Italian surgeons who reconstructed noses mutilated by war and criminal punishment. Nevertheless, until the closing decades of the 19th century, plastic surgery as a distinct discipline did not exist. Only a few isolated surgeons had begun to explore the possibility of altering nasal shape and size for the goal of improving the patient's appearance, not for function or reconstruction.I In 1845, Diffenbach of Germany published a text that described surgical procedures for nasal reduction through external incisions.' For almost a half century, there appeared to be little more published on the subject of cosmetic surgery. Then, during the ll-year period from 1887 to 1898, the seminal publications and presentations on rhinoplasty appeared in the United States and Germany. In 1887 , John Orlando Roe, an otolaryngologist who studied in New York and Europe, published in the New York Medical Record an article titled "The Deformity Termed 'Pug Nose' and Its Correction by a Simple Operation. "2 This was the first published report on an endonasal rhinoplasty. Four years later,
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