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was done by using the Sociocultural Attitudes toward Appearance Questionnaire to see if young individuals compare themselves to celebrities or images of individuals in magazines. Participants were also asked to indicate the frequency with which they watched television or videos weekly. The study concluded that media body comparison is significantly associated with body dissatisfaction in women, but that there is not a significant relationship between media body comparison and body dissatisfaction in men. Although men have received less research attention, Nikkelen et al. focused on media influence on body image of males in “Influence of Visual Attention on Male Body Dissatisfaction After Idealized Media Exposure” (2007). Studies have found that men are somewhat dissatisfied with their bodies and prefer bodies that are leaner and muscular. Negative contrast theory suggests that individuals tend to compare themselves to images in the media and develop negative feeling about their bodies. Contemporary images of men in media show a more muscular body than the bodies of average men and exposure to these images may foster a negative effect on male body dissatisfaction. This study consisted of fifty-seven participants among a student population that ranged from nineteen to thirty-three years of age. The results revealed that media images do not affect all men equally. Some men may be more susceptible to developing body dissatisfaction than others due to media exposure, but overall, body dissatisfaction did not differ between men who had been exposed to neutral media or idealized media content. 9 An extensive review of 15 studies by Anna Blond entitled “Impacts of Exposure to Images of Ideal Bodies on Male Dissatisfaction: A Review” (2008) explored the effects that advertisements and commercials containing idealized images of men have on male body dissatisfaction. Social comparison theory is used to explain the connection between individual body satisfaction and images shown in media. Overall, the studies had a small positive effect size that suggests that exposure to media showing ideal male bodies has a small significant effect on body dissatisfaction. The accounts of dissatisfaction all resulted from images presenting athletic male bodies. These images in combination with those containing attractive faces have the greatest influence on male body dissatisfaction. This study suggested that some men think this ideal is attainable and may view these images as a source of inspiration instead of discouragement. IV. Body Modification and Society In “Bodies of Change: A Comparative Analysis of Media Representations of Body Modification Practices” (2009), Josh Adams compares representations of cosmetic surgery, tattoos and body piercings in mass media accounts. Media outlets frame issues so that they reinforce normative standards. An increasingly popular subject in the media are topics regarding self-betterment. Content about cosmetic surgery, exercise and diets emphasize cultural beauty ideals and the importance of attractiveness and personal appearance. This practice has led to the assimilation of cosmetic surgery into mainstream culture. The frame in which cosmetic surgery is currently presented in the media suggest that it is accessible for everyone, but in the past these procedures were luxuries reserved for the rich. Newspaper analysis revealed that cosmetic surgery has a higher degree of social legitimacy in comparison to other body modification practices. 10 The current way that cosmetic surgery is presented in the media omits many of the real issues associated with surgery and the postsurgical recovery process. This analysis also showed that media coverage of cosmetic surgery is highly gendered and is directed primarily towards female viewers and readers. The presence of men and women in newspaper articles regarding cosmetic surgery differs in the rationales that individuals must give for having such procedures. Men having cosmetic procedures must have rational justification for doing so unless they want to be seen as feminine or vain. Cosmetic surgery is a way for men to adapt in workplaces that are full of young individuals so that they do not fall behind or get forgotten. The justification of maintaining a specific appearance to stay relevant in the workplace makes getting plastic surgery acceptable for men. Regardless of gender, cosmetic surgery is presented in the media as a way to maintain a youthful appearance and stay relevant in a society where energy often trumps experience. The current presentation of race in cosmetic surgery media content is focused on the idea that certain procedures are associated with certain ethnic groups. Individuals of certain races may not necessarily be trying to look “white” when they have certain procedures done. Goals of individuals are related to social or cultural acceptance and identification with a dominant racial or ethnic group or white-centered aesthetic standard. Prevalence of the words beauty, youth and ideal show that individuals of any race or gender obtain plastic surgery to look better and thrive in a society obsessed with physical appearance. The aesthetic expectations of our culture are framed by mass media and the attitudes that individuals have about cosmetic surgery play an important part in the increasing popularity of certain
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