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reaction, and self-concept in five-year-old girls. Pediatrics, 107(1), 46–53. https:// doi.org/10.1542/peds.107.1.46. De Vries, D. A., Peter, J., Nikken, P., & de Graaf, H. (2014). The effect of social network site use on appearance investment and desire for cosmetic surgery among adolescent boys and girls. Sex Roles, 71(9–10), 283–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199- 0 Objective: The human beings’ interest in beauty and improvement of their appearance might compel them to seek for cosmetic surgery. This study aimed to compare body image, selfesteem, and psychological problems between the applicants and non-applicants of cosmetic surgery in Iran. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study. A total of 200 participants were selected for this study (including 100 applicants and 100 non-applicants of cosmetic surgery) via purposive sampling method. The questionnaires of body image, self-esteem, and psychological problems were used for data collection. Results: The mean score of body image among non-applicants was higher than applicants of cosmetic surgery, but this difference was not statistically significant. In addition, there were no significant differences between the two groups regarding their self-esteem and psychological problems. Conclusion: Cosmetic surgery is not necessarily associated with body image, self-esteem and psychological problems. A B S T R A C T Article info: Received: 25 Jun 2018 Accepted: 14 Oct 2018 Available Online: 01 Jan 2019 Keywords: Body image, Self-esteem, Psychological problems, Cosmetic surgery Research Paper: Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Psychological Problems Among Applicants and Nonapplicants of Cosmetic Surgery Citation: Heidarzadeh, A., Shahmohammadipour, P., Azzizadeh Forouzi, M., Dehghan, M., & Khorasani, Z. (2019). Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Psychological Problems Among Applicants and Non-applicants of Cosmetic Surgery. Journal of Practice in Clinical Psychology, 7(1), 33-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.32598/jpcp.7.1.33 : http://dx.doi.org/10.32598/jpcp.7.1.33 Use your device to scan and read the article online 34 January 2019, Volume 7, Number 1 1. Introduction uman beings have long been interested in beauty (Khanjani, Babapour, & Saba, 2012). Different cultures have always valued the attractive appearance of the people since the dawn of history. Based on the evidence, individuals with attractive appearances have benefited from this gift and solved their problems using their charm (Tousi, Barikbin, Arbabi, & Saati, 2007). In addition, a beautiful face will improve and increase the individual’s self-image and self-confidence. As a result, they usually perform their social activities at a more acceptable level (Khanjani et al., 2012). In the 20st century, especially in recent decades, new interpretations have been brought about beauty and it has been defined as a set of components such as fitness, cosmetics, clothing, attractiveness, and perfection (Von Soest, Kvalem, Roald, & Skolleborg, 2009). Integration of beauty with industrial and medical advances has changed the attitudes toward beauty; therefore, beauty is not a mere congenital gift anymore but can be acquired (Khanjani et al., 2012). Nowadays, cosmetic surgery is one of the most common surgeries throughout the world and ever-increasing people use it (Dowling, Jackson, & Honigman, 2013). Invasive surgical procedures account for 18% of the total number of procedures, they comprise 63% of the total operating costs. Non-surgical, less expensive procedures have far surpassed surgical statistics with the introduction of Botox injections, facial fillers, and laser resurfacing. Altogether, it is estimated that these procedures have cost Americans over $10 billion in 2011 (Riggs, 2012). Although cosmetic surgery has been practicing in Iran since five decades ago, rapid changes in scientific and social issues have ranked Iran among the world’s top 10 countries performing plastic surgery. Although no exact statistics are available in this regard, according to some reports, Iran has the first place among all countries in performing cosmetic surgeries (Mousavizadeh, Niazi Shahraki, Kalantar Hormozi, Fadaei Naeini, & Nasri Lari, 2010). In cosmetic surgery, the body appearance will change in the absence of any specific diseases, injuries, or congenital and inherited anomalies (Mohammadpanah, Yaghoobi, & Yusefi, 2012). However, cosmetic surgery has changed into a glamorous mean of luxuriousness among different people resulting in unreal expectations of individuals and confounded realities about the nature of the operation (Farshidfar, Dastjerdi, & Shahabizadeh, 2013). People have different objectives for cosmetic surgery such as beautifying their body appearance, having a more attractive face, improving apparent status, becoming successful in marriage, obtaining more self-confidence in social interactions, and satisfying the expectations of family and friends (Baniasadi, 2012). One of the psychological aspects related to cosmetic surgery is body image (Jomeen & Martin, 2005). Having a realistic and pleasant body image is necessary for enjoying from a healthy and fruitful social life and if people have a good feeling towards their physical body, they will likely to feel a positive body image (Hosseini, Ghasemi, Molayi Gonbadi, & Rezayi, 2010).
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