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the states report. Religion. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/125066/State-States.aspx?ref=interactive 4 Kramer, E. (2016, February 16). Beauty capitals: The 10 U.S. metros with the most plastic surgeons per capita. Real Self Trends. Retrieved from https://trends.realself.com/2016/02/16/plastic-surgeons-percapita-cities/ 5 Namie, J. (2013). 6 Cronk, K., & Poulson, S. (2016, February 24). Vain Utah: Plastic surgery more popular than ever in the beehive state. Fox 13. Retrieved from http://fox13now.com/2016/02/24/vain-utah-cosmetic-surgerymore-popular-than-ever-in-the-beehive-state/ 7 Gallivan, H. R. (2014). Teens, social media and body image. Park, Nicollett Melrose Center. Retrieved from http://www.macmh.org/wpcontent/uploads/2014/05/18_Gallivan_Teens-social-media-bodyimage-presentation-H-Gallivan-Spring-2014.pdf 8 Dove. (2016, June 21). New Dove research finds beauty pressures up, and women and girls calling for change. PR Newswire. Retrieved from http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-dove-research-findsbeauty-pressures-up-and-women-and-girls-calling-for-change583743391.html 9 National Eating Disorders Collaboration. (2017). What is body image? Retrieved from http://www.nedc.com.au/body-image 10 Gallivan, H. R. (2014). 11 Hillard, E. E., Gondoli, D. M., Corning, A. F., & Morrissey, R. A. (2016). In it together: Mother talk of weight concerns moderates negative outcomes of encouragement to lose weight on daughter body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Body Image 16, 21–27. 12 Loupe, D. & Creech, R. (2014, April 26). Female teens attest to fading confidence. Women’s eNEws. Retrieved from h Objectification Theory Predicts College Women’s Attitudes Toward Cosmetic Surgery Rachel M. Calogero & Afroditi Pina & Lora E. Park & Zara Rahemtulla # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010 Abstract This study investigated cosmetic surgery attitudes within the framework of objectification theory. One hundred predominantly White, British undergraduate women completed self-report measures of impression management, global selfesteem, interpersonal sexual objectification, self-surveillance, body shame, and three components of cosmetic surgery attitudes. As expected, each of the objectification theory variables predicted greater consideration of having cosmetic surgery in the future. Also, as expected, sexual objectification and body shame uniquely predicted social motives for cosmetic surgery, whereas self-surveillance uniquely predicted intrapersonal motives for cosmetic surgery. These findings suggest that women’s acceptance of cosmetic surgery as a way to manipulate physical appearance can be partially explained by the degree to which they view themselves through the lenses of sexual and self-objectification. Keywords Cosmetic surgery. Objectification theory . Self-surveillance . Body shame . Sexual objectification Introduction The central purpose of the present research was to examine women’s attitudes toward cosmetic surgery through the lens of objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts 1997). Extending prior research on cosmetic surgery attitudes (Brown et al. 2007; Henderson-King and Henderson-King 2005; Sarwer et al. 2005; Swami et al. 2008), the present study investigates objectification theory variables (i.e., sexual objectification, self-surveillance, body shame) as a specific set of interpersonal and intrapersonal factors that may be associated with women’s endorsement of cosmetic surgery as an acceptable means of changing their physical appearance. Specifically, this cross-sectional investigation examines the relationship between objectification theory variables and cosmetic surgery attitudes among a sample of women living in the U.K., a cultural context within which women consistently report high levels of appearance concerns, sexual and self-objectification, and interest in cosmetic surgery (Calogero 2009; Calogero et al. 2010; Calogero and Thompson 2009a; Dittmar et al. 2000; Grogan 2008; McLaren et al. 2004; Puwar 2004; Swami et al. 2009a). This research provides a new test and application of objectification theory to the understanding of women’s lived experiences in westernized societies. Feminist scholars have discussed how the construction of women’s bodies within particular social and cultural contexts determines the way that women’s bodies will be viewed, evaluated, and treated (Bartky 1990; Berger 1972; de Beauvoir 1952; Martin 1987). Objectification theory, proposed by Fredrickson and Roberts (1997), considers the pervasive sexual objectification of women in westernized societies as a macro-level context that produces a chain of negative micro-level consequences known to occur at a disproportionately higher rate among women. Sexual objectification occurs whenever a woman is reduced to and/or treated as a body or collection of body parts available for sexual use (Bartky 1990). According to objectification theory, sexual objectification plays out most obviously in two arenas: actual interpersonal and social R. M. Calogero (*) : A. Pina : Z. Rahemtulla School of Psychology, Keynes College, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NP, UK e-mail: R.M.Calogero@kent.ac.uk L. E. Park University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA Sex Roles
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